Music History: Rock Music Study PDF

Introduction: Studying Rock Rock music was born out of controversy, and its rebellious image has always appealed to fans. 1) ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER Rock History in the media Familiarity with Rock Music: Studying rock music is not a new phenomenon; many fans already h...

Introduction: Studying Rock Rock music was born out of controversy, and its rebellious image has always appealed to fans. 1) ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER Rock History in the media Familiarity with Rock Music: Studying rock music is not a new phenomenon; many fans already have some background knowledge of artists and their music. Sources of Information: Fans who haven't studied rock academically typically gather historical information from various sources, including: ○ General interest publications ○ Radio broadcasts ○ Television programs ○ The Internet ○ Biographical films and documentaries. I Know What I Like: The Fan Mentality. fans of rock music ○ listen frequently to the music of a particular artist, group, or style and gather interesting facts about both the artists and the music ○ as fans it is normal to ignore artists, groups, or styles we do not interest us but as students of rock music, we cannot simply ignore music we do not like The Ups and Downs of Chart Positions Popularity Insights: ○ Charts provide general insights into the popularity of a song or album at the time of its release. Comparative Analysis: ○ Charts allow for comparisons of how songs performed across different genres (pop, rhythm and blues, country) and even on British charts. Avoiding Fan Mentality:  ○Charts help maintain objectivity, preventing the "fan mentality" that may skew perceptions of an artist's success. Skepticism Among Scholars: ○ Scholars often view charts with skepticism due to historical issues regarding their compilation and potential manipulation. Valuable Tool for Trends: ○ Despite their flaws, charts remain the best available tool for analyzing changing listener tastes throughout rock history. The four themes chapter Organization: ○ Each chapter covers a three-to-ten-year period of rock history. ○ The music is organized along stylistic lines and raises interpretive issues. Insight into Music: ○ The chapters provide insights into scholarly and critical details about music and its historical context, aesthetic impact, and value. Themes Explored: ○ Four important themes are pursued throughout the book: 1. Social, Political, and Cultural Issues: Examining how rock music reflects and influences societal dynamics. 2. Race, Ethnicity, Class, and Gender: Investigating the intersection of these identities in the development and reception of rock music. 3. Development of the Music Business: Analyzing how the music industry evolved alongside rock music. 4. Development of Technology: Exploring how technological advancements influenced the production and distribution of rock music. Tracking and popularity arc. when studying the history of rock music from the 1950s through the early 2000s and beyond, focusing on the pattern of styles and their popularity: Popularity Arc: 1. There is a noticeable pattern where styles often start in a small regional underground scene, gain traction, and then move into mainstream pop culture, only to later experience a retreat from the mainstream. Key Questions to Consider:  1. How Did the Style Arise? Explore the origins of the style, including cultural, social, and musical influences that contributed to its development. 2. When Did It Peak in Popularity? Identify the time period when the style was at its most popular and the factors that contributed to its success during that time. 3. Does It Still Exist in Subculture Somewhere? Investigate whether elements of the style continue to thrive in underground or niche communities, despite its retreat from mainstream attention. 4. How Are Elements of This Style Incorporated into Current Mainstream Pop? Examine how aspects of the original style are reflected in contemporary music trends and the ways in which they influence current mainstream pop. 2) What to listen for in rock “Rocket ‘88.’ ” Jacki Brenston and his Delta Cats, 1951 single, recorded in Memphis and produced by Sam Phillips first rock and roll song to show how the song is laid out there is a formal diagram: that provides an overview of the formal design of the song or how different parts of the song fit together to create what is often a familiar pattern, these are organized into the five songs forms described in the introduction this is what is called a simple verse form: consists of a series of verses, all of which use the same underlying music, contain no chorus or bridge sections, through the verse may contain a refrain Repeats a single section eight times in verse 2, each section is labeled either ○ verse: a section that most often features new lyrics with each repetition within a song, unlike a chorus, often used to tell a story or describe a situation. In an AABA form, is the focal point of the song and may also include a refrain. In a verse-chorus form, the verse sets up the chorus which is the focus of the song  ○ instrument verse: a verse section that repeats the music of the verse, without the singing and with the instrument soloing. Guitar, saxophone, and keyboard solos are common although every instrument can solo 12 mm indicates that the section is twelve (measures (bar): count one, two, three, four, this is a measure of music and the numbers represent beats, usually having the same number of beats throughout the song) in length beats: regular puls in music, organized into measures or bars to create a meter, count in groups of four 1951: Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats, "Rocket '88'" 3) TYPICAL FORMAL TYPES IN AMERICAN POPULAR MUSIC The 12-Bar Blues and the Doo-Wop Progression. 12-Bar Blues Structure Definition: A common structural pattern in rock music, consisting of twelve groups of four-beat measures. Grouping: Distinctive organization into three groups of four measures. Lyric Structure: ○ The first phrase's lyrics are often repeated in the second phrase.  ○ The third phrase introduces new lyrics, following a question/question repeated/answer model. Chord Arrangement Chords: Specific arrangement of chords that underlies the 12-bar blues, commonly found in 1950s rock and rhythm & blues. Repetition: Once established, the 12-measure pattern typically repeats throughout the song, with new lyrics and instrumental solos added for variation. Phrase Definition: A short passage of music, often four measures in length. Lyric Repetition: The first line in each verse is repeated in the second phrase, with the third phrase providing a concluding line. Vocal Phrasing: Corresponds to clear points of division and articulation in the sung lyrics. Rhythm: The organization of musical sounds over time. Beat: A regular rhythmic pulse. Measures: May consist of two or three beats, counted as: ○ Duple Meter: “one two, one two” ○ Triple Meter: “one two three, one two three” Meter: The organization of beats and rhythm in music. Divisions: A single beat can be divided into two or three equal parts: ○ Duple Division: “one & two & three & four &” ○ Triple Division: “one & uh, two & uh, three & uh, four & uh” Time Signature: Indicates the organization of rhythm for a song or passage, given in parentheses next to each meter classification. Common Time Signature: Represents the most frequently used signature in written music for the corresponding meter. Shuffle Rhythm Definition: A way of playing 4/4 that resembles 12/8. Characteristics: Often silent on the second of the count, resulting in a pattern of “one (&) uh, two (&) uh, three (&) uh, four (&) uh”. Tempo Definition: The speed of the music, determined by the pace of beats in each measure. Fixed or Flexible: Tempo can be either consistent throughout a piece or adaptable to changes. Structural Properties of 12-Bar Blues  Repetition: The 12-bar blues format allows for creative repetition and variation within the song structure, forming a foundation for many rock and rhythm & blues songs. Roman numbers: music theorists to identify chords within a key chords: a combination of three or more notes placed simultaneously. Chords in any key can be organized by the scale for that key, and the Roman numerals show which note of the scale the chord is based on. If we are in C, for instance, the scale goes C – D – E – F – G – A – B – C. doo-wop progression: a structure that can form the basis for the verse, chorus, and bridge section in rock music ○ Though it can occur in many styles of pop, this chord progression is most often associated with the doo-wop of the 1950s. ○ Bridge: a section of the song that provides contrast to other, more salient sections of the same song, such as the verse of the chorus never the focal section of the song The cords“Sh-Boom”, 1954 employs a common variant of the doo-wop progression, I – vi – ii – V Elvis Presley heartbreak hotel, 1956 simple verse form reactive structures like the 12-bar blues and the doo-wop pogression often combine to form larger structural patterns a form that employs only verses AABA Form the song form most associated with mainstream pop before the birth of pop and roll when the entire AABA formed is repeated it is a full reprise and when the only part of the ABBA form returns, it is a partial reprise. Jerry lee lewis, Greater balls of fire (1958) Simple verse chorus  A chorus is a section that repeats with the same music and lyrics intact in each presentation, the focus of the song simple verse chorus: the verse and chorus sections employ the same underlying musical material though the lyrics and sung melodies of each section are different. The verses and choruses are presented in alternation, though more than one verse may occur before the chorus ○ built in the same 16-bar progression The carter Family, can the circle be broken (1935) Contrasting verse chorus the verse and the chorus employ contrasting musical material. The form consists of these contrasting verses and choruses presented in alternation, though more than one verse may occur before the chorus Verse, chorus, or bridge? rhetorical priority: if the section is the main focus of the song it has high rhetorical priority (chorus) and if a section functions mostly in the subordinate manner often introducing contrast only to make the return of the more important section sound fresh again, it has low rhetorical priority (bridge) ○ in simple verse and contrasting verse forms, the chorus has a higher rhetorical priority  ○ In AABA, the verse has a higher rhetorical priority than the bridge Holly and the crickets “that I’ll be the day (1958) Billie Holiday and her Orquestra:” A Fine Romance” Abac Form American popular music before the rise of rock and roll it is similar to AABA but employs a verse (A) followed by B and then returns to verse(A) and concludes with (C that provides an overall sense of musical building ○ employs for 8 bar phrases totaling 32 bars  4) Who’s playing what instrumental in rock Beat it: drums and percussion musical instruments used in rock music, and especially the ways these instruments are combined, are central to the myriad musical styles rhythm section: an instrument ensemble that accompanies vocal and instrumental soloists. In rock, the esse,ble commonly compromises ○ drum, the heart of the rhythm section whose role is to establish not only the tempo and meter but also the feel of each song, employs a set consisting in snare drum(sits and stand between the drummers legs), the bass drum ( played by the right foot high-hat(two cymbals that can be campled together using a stand controlled by a foot pedal) most drummers use tom-toms, those which are mounted on the bass drum are ride roms the rhythmic patterns drummers play work something lie the geras of a cock ○ kitt, electric bass, and several guitars, and keyboards may also be used The low down: Electric Bass the bass player’s job is to lock in with the drummer rhythmically and to provide the important bass notes to the chord progressions played by the guitar and or keyboards within the rhythmic section, the bassist is a kind of bridge between the rhythmic and harmonic dimensions of music The bass usually has four strings that match the bottom four strings of the guitar ○ the distance between tuning in a guitar and bass strings is what musicians call octave:( an interval of eight notes) a lower or higher version of the same note. Bass is normally tuned an octave below the guitar, allowing it to assume a lower position in the sonic space Harmony in Motion: Rhythm Guitar and keyboards  while the bass usually provides a foundation for a song’s harmony within the rhythm section, the rhythm guitar fleas out the harmonic dimension by playing full chords and can be played on either acoustic or electric rhythm guitar parts complement the ass and drum parts, and these three work together to establish the harmonic and rhythmic basis for the song has to be careful to fit his part in with the bas drm, will lock in with the snare emphasizing the snare art while filling in the training space between beats If keyboards and organs are used with the rhythmic guitar they may play the same rhythmic figure as the guitar or simply sustain chords while the guitar palsy its most rhythmic part but must careful not to conflict musically In the spotlight: lead singers and backup vocals with the rhythmic and harmonic dimensions of the piece firmly secured by the rhythmic selection, the singer focuses on the melodic dimension of the music ○ are sometimes very free with the rhythmic placement of their melody notes, which translates into a lively dialect tensión with the tightly structured grid of the rhythm section the singer's job is to create melodic interest and deliver the lyrics in convince ways Many listeners attend as closely to the lyrics as to the melody that projects them, so a vocal performer has to be sure that the words come across effectively are also accompanied by background vocals ○ may have no backup ○ accompanied by harmony vocals that follow the melody or support of echo for some part of it usually coordinated to avoid conflict between parts Steppin’ Up: Instrumental Solos. in order to create contrasts in arrangement an instrument solo is often introduced somewhere past the midpoint of the song: piano, guitar, or saxophone The rhythm section remains the same as it was during the other sections of the song, supporting the soloist Horns and strings: sweetening the sound some arrangements use horns or strings to add finishing touches to a track horn sections often consist of a combination of trumpet, trombones, and saxophones used to give the tune a little more punch strings can make the arrangements sound elegant and bigger, saved until the end, and are employed to give the end of the track or a convincing lift  ○ backdrop that enhances the son without adding too much attention to itself How it all fits together: smoke on the water Deep Purple Smoke on the Water is a prime example of how rock music from the mid-1960s is organized in terms of instrumentation ○ the track follows the contrasting verse-chorus formal pattern: after a lengthy introduction there are four verses, with a coda, rounding the tune off ○ the song begins with an electric guitar alone, playing for measure blues blues-inflected riff (not a complete melody) that is then repeated 5) In the studio: the roll of recording techniques in rock music rock repertoire is not simply a collection of songs, but a collection of specific recordings of songs Is it live or is it Memorex there are two principal approaches to thinking about what a recording represents. 1) is to think of the recording as an audio snapshot, the recording is meant to reproduce a live performance as faithfully as possible, and the listener should be unaware that a recording process is involved, should seem natural and indiscernible, and is frequently used in classical jazz and folk music 2) exploit the possibilities offered by the studio, this often creates sounds that would be impossible to recreate in a live setting, the recording studio also allows instruments to be combined in ways that would not easily work in a natural acoustic setting Reverb and Echo every space we enter has specific acoustic properties, whenever a sound is made it is the result of a series of vibrations moving through the air. Some of these vibrations reach our ears directly from the source, while others bounce around the room and reflect back to us ○ architects who design concert halls are keenly aware of this, and they devote considerable energy to determining the balance of harder and softer surfaces in a hall and how these surfaces will be angled When taking the audio snapshot approach, it is crucial to find a space with “good acoustics” it is also possible to artificially create a room sound- ambience ○ via electronic means called reverb, offer settings that reproduce the sound of small rooms, medium-sized rooms, large rooms, auditoriums of various sizes, churches, and a number of “unnatural” spaces.  reverb is different from echo, in the natural world an echo occurs when sound bounces back to our ears to create two sonic images of the same event- we hear the original and then its reflection. ○ In Rock Echo is used exclusively and often on voices ○ together with reverb, echo can make the singing sound much richer and even make certain imperfections in tone or intonation ○ the most famous echo can be found in Elvis Presley's sound recordings the more echo or reverb, the further away the sound seems to be River Deep, mountain high equalization Frequency also plays a major role in recording techniques, as equalizers, effects that change the quality of sound by increasing or decreasing certain frequencies, often used to enhance or reduce treble, midrange, or bass sounds in recordings and live performances Each note played by an instrument is called its fundamental, but along with his note, every note also subtly produces other, higher notes that hep form the none or timbre of the instrument In the process of recording instruments, an engineer has a significant amount of control over the Timbre of the recording sound, adjusting frequencies of sound is often called EQ, short for equalization Every breath you take: stereo placement Most rock music was recorded and released in monographic sound or mono, assumed to be one-speaker for playback, and no possibility of stereo imagining- Phil sector on of the most successful producers the Beatles records that were originally released in mono. Then they went to stereo, a method of sound reproduction that produces two discrete sound signals, allowing listeners to create a sense of horizontal space. FM radio is broadcast in stereo and became a popular playback form during the late 1960’s and 70’s. ○ in music that is recorded in stereo, the engineer can control the weather the sound comes of the right or left speaker, or some combination fo the two Mixing these dimensions of recorded sound- ambiance, EQ, stereo placement, and overall volume are controlled from a mixing board ○ mixing board is controlled in two ways: first two record the sound to tape and second to play the recording back The use of tape after World War II allowed engineers to begin experimenting with multi-track tape, creating recordings from multiple performances  ○ early recording tape could store three tracks of music but as the ’60s and 70’s progressed tapes could contain four, eight, sixteen, twenty, forty-eight… as computer hardware and software have become less expensive in the last decade, more musicians have turned to digital audio workstations, a category of software that allows computers to serve as recording and editing devices for music creation, including GarageBand, ProTools, and logic Regardless of the process used to capture the sounds once all the tracks are recorded, the engineer is ready to mix down: a creative stage of recording when multiple tracks are combined into mono or stereo masters, volume levels are manipulated and effects are often added during the stage Putting it all together: Josie most sophisticated recorded sounds in rock were created by Steely Dan ○ structured according to the compound AABA form, each section is made up of smaller verse and chorus sections ○ after an angular introduction featuring the electric guitar, there are several measures vamp, usually a section of instrumental music that repeats one or two chords, often to set up the entrance of the vocals In terms of instrumentation, the track uses a fairly standard rhythm guitar, electric piano, bass, and drums The vocals are mostly solo, with some backing vocals added during both the verse and chorus sections. The stereo aspect of the record can be heard most readily in the drums: note that the snare and bass drums are in the center, the high-hat is panned right, and tom-toms and cymbals are panned both right and left 6. Viewing rock formal structure, instrumentation, and studio techniques are among the most important aspects of recorded sound Rock music became popular after World War II when images of musicians were often inextricable from sound Although an average listener often has experience with the visual aspects of rock when studying rock in an academic setting it is informative to consider the relationship between music and images Steely Dan, “Josie” Rock television variety shows presented compelling rock performances on network television ○ comedy, skits, dancing, and musical performances important variety shows: Ed Sullivan Show and the Hollywood Palace Although some might find it odd to celebrate variety show appearances, the shows are often historically valuable because they include real-time musical performances while variety shows were often marketed to adults in roime slots, teen-oriented dance programs, became extremely popular during the 1950s: shows like American Bandstand and The Arthur Murray Party both of which became nationally syndicated ○ often featured a special guest performance but most artists did not perform live mucis lip synching instead Television has also been an important forum for artists starring in musical sitcoms, beginning with The monkey in the 60’s ○ The Partridge Family was a fictional musical group, popularized during the 70s in a self-named television series, and then came fame that offered a similar musical dramatic construct that included notable elements of theatre and dance and lastly glee Rock film many rock music performances were featured in motion pictures like Rock Around the Clock and Blackboard Jungle characterized rock musicians and fans as “hoodlums,” rock performances were increasingly common in major motion pictures only a few years later. ○ Presley's move into motion pictures helped usher rock and roll into Hollywood and during the 60s  ○ It became common for low-budget teen-oriented films to feature musicians and rock performances, the most popular WAS BEACH PARTY FILM produced in 63 and 67 70 and '80s rock musicians continued to star in films ○ KISS famously starred in the cult classic KISS Meets the Phantom of the Park in 1978, a made-for-television film that is best known for its embarrassing and campy acting. concert films have also been important to the history of rock music, most important film was T.A.M.I show a feature film shot at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium that included performances by many of the most popular rock stars of the time, ranging from British invasion groups to James Brown Music videos since the advent of rock, artists have also used films as a vehicle for advancing their careers and increasing their popularity ○ Short films made to promote singles date back at least to the 1960s, although these were more a part of the European market than the American one. the promotional video later called the musical video has an extraordinary history that eventually made a massive impact on the entire popular music industry Visual and contextual aspects of nowhere to run video elements of rock, a famous performance is Martha and the Vendellas for their single Nowhere to go ○ lop sinked video, features martha and the vendellas in the car factory in detroit riding down the assembly line in a ford mustang as it is being assembled image sform this footage have been associeed with motown the Vandella record company ○ from this clip, we learn several things about the connection between video and musical performances in the early rock era First we see how the government was attuned to the power fo musical performances to inspire youth to action specific setting can enhance religion and cultural stereotypes of musical sounds we witness how a larger context ofa video can be ost over time and reconnecting those settings is valuable to the study of rock music and its history 1920’s-40s these decades in AMERICA were too a great extent shaped by three crucial events: the end of World War I, the stock market crash of 1929, and world war II. Chapter 1: the world before rock and roll 1) Building a national audience for music and entertainment National versus regional One of the important changes that took place in popular music in the first half of the twentieth century was the emergence of a national audience. ○ At the end of the nineteenth century, the majority of Americans lived in a world very much conditioned by their local and regional surroundings the technological and marketing developments in radio and motion pictures played a central role in making the same kinds of popular entertainment In the early 20th century, advancements in radio and motion pictures significantly contributed to the widespread availability of popular entertainment across the United States, reducing regional differences. The 1930s and '40s, often regarded as the golden age of cinema, saw Hollywood produce a diverse array of films that were shown in theaters nationwide, fostering a unified national entertainment culture. Alongside this, radio played a crucial role in reaching and building a national audience, complementing the impact of films. ○ Radio development was developed at the end of the nineteenth century and used initially for military purposes and to communicate with ships at sea; the first radio broadcasts of consequence for our story date back to 1920, when KDKA in Pittsburgh and WWJ in Detroit went on the air with a blend of news, local information, and live music Especially important to the history of popular music is the way some pop styles became national while other styles kept tier regional identities ○ great extent this can be attributed to the programming of the networks: the mainstream pop music of performers such as Bing Crosby, the  Andrews Sisters, the big bands, and later Frank Sinatra was heard frequently on network radio ○ while Western and rhythm and blues were not The Rise of the Radio Networks in the 1920s (How Did They Work?). In the early years of radio, broadcasters found two effective methods for expanding their reach and getting radio into more American homes. ○ first, was to broadcast the radio signal via a high-power transmitter, such as Superstations and Clear-Channel Stations: High-power stations licensed by the government could broadcast across multistate regions, while some broadcasters set up transmitters in Mexico to evade U.S. regulations (the "X-stations"). The second, and more effective method, Networks: The development of networks, like NBC using AT&T telephone lines, allowed for broader, coast-to-coast broadcasts, increasing the reach to larger audiences. the network systems have a number of advantages: programming could be run from one central location and it was also possible to run live programming from member stations Networks formed partnerships with local stations (affiliates), giving them a wide range of programming options. When networks secured clear-channel stations, they combined the advantages of broad reach and diverse content. The network system established in radio during the 1920s still exists today in television and talk radio, where programming originates from major hubs (like Los Angeles or New York) and reaches a national audience via local stations. perhaps the biggest difference between today's radio and radio before 1945 was that back then it was considered unethical to play records on radio as listeners expected all performances to be live ○ Live Music Requirement: Most music was performed live on air, reflecting the expectation that broadcasts were in real time. ○ Opportunities for Musicians: The live performance expectation created numerous job opportunities for musicians. ○ Studio Bands: Larger stations employed studio bands for local programming, despite also broadcasting network content.  ○ Modern Shift: Today, radio listeners expect recorded music, contrasting with the earlier practice of live-only broadcasts. Stations had to fill gaps in their programming when network shows weren’t on the air, providing opportunities for local bandleaders to promote their groups. In response, the American Federation of Musicians took strong political action in the 1940s to keep records off the airwaves. Their aim was to ensure that live music was played, which helped keep musicians and union members employed. network radio programming offers listeners a wide range of entertainment ○ one of the greatest successes of the era was the comedy Amos ’n’ Andy which premiered in 1929 Despite its reliance on racial stereotypes from the minstrel tradition, it captivated the nation at the time. This level of national engagement was similar to the success of later television shows such as All in the Family, MASH*, Cheers, Seinfeld, and Breaking Bad. ○ Network radio established a nationwide audience, creating a shared popular culture where music could gain widespread popularity rapidly. Unlike in the past, where word of mouth spread slowly, radio allowed a song to reach a vast audience almost instantly. The migration of big corporate money from radio to television network radio helped create a national audience but by the late 1940s that audience was begging to move away from radio and toward the newest technological marvel: televison ○ The Radio Corporation of America (RCA), led by David Sarnoff, had been instrumental in radio's development, from decoding Titanic transmissions in 1912 to building NBC networks in the 1920s and '30s. As television emerged, Sarnoff shifted RCA's focus from radio to this new medium, believing that combining sound with images would surpass the popularity and profitability of radio alone. Is it live or is it Memorex? a note on recording technology In recent years, old radio broadcasts have become available through audiobooks, but many assume these are original tapes. ○ However, recording tape wasn't commonly used until the late 1940s. The technology, first developed by Germans during World War II to protect Adolf Hitler's broadcasts from detection, was refined to create high-quality recordings. When the Allies discovered this advanced tape technology, it soon spread to the radio industry. Most original broadcasts are lost for radio shows predating 1945. The preserved ones are often on "transcription discs"  ○ During World War II, the U.S. government sent these discs to armed forces stations overseas, providing servicemen with familiar radio shows to ease the emotional strain of being away from home. 2) Tin pan Alley sheet music publishers and professional songwriters the development of radio and television technologies was one influence on the mainstream popular music business in the decades of rock and roll In the first half of the twentieth century, Tin Pan Alley in New York City was the epicenter of the sheet music industry. ○ where early 20th-century songwriters and producers gathered and a broader concept in popular music. ○ The area earned its name from the sound of numerous pianos played by songwriters, which locals likened to banging on tin pans. ○ This area was central to the creation of numerous famous songs by notable songwriters such as Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, George and Ira Gershwin, and Jerome Kern, and the business practices used to sell this music. Musically speaking, Tin Pan Alley songs follow a standard, through a very flexible, formal pattern ○ many of the songs make use of a sectional verse-chorus format, in which the sectional chorus is the song listeners are likely to recognize while the sectional verse is a kind of introduction that sets the sense of the song sectional chorus, often cast in a 32-measure structural pattern called AABA form Judie Garland, over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz, provides a representative example of how the 32-bar AABA form is structured AABA pattern is a hallmark of Tin Pan Alley music, This uniformity in musical form, alongside a consistent approach to other musical elements, was common among professional songwriters of the time. Although the sectional verse-chorus format and ABAC form are less common in rock music, the AABA form remains influential. In the Tin Pan Alley era, the primary unit of trade was the song itself rather than a specific recording  ○ Unlike modern rock music, where individual recordings are traded, Tin Pan Alley focused on selling songs that could be recorded by multiple artists, each putting their own spin on it. ○ This practice allowed songwriters and publishers to earn more from various renditions of a single song. Songwriters, who were usually not performers, relied on publishers to promote their songs to potential performers. Author Video: Judy Garland with Victor Young and His Orchestra, “Over the Rainbow” (1939) with the rise of musical theatre, broadway musicals became a prime vehicle for getting songs heard, often featuring minimal plots to connect the music. the first movies had no sound, though music was in many instances furnished live by local musicians ○ A significant turning point came with the 1927 film The Jazz Singer, which featured vocal performances and marked the transition to sound in movies. ○ In the 1930s, sound films gained popularity, leading to Broadway musicals being adapted for the screen and new musicals being created for films.  ○ Many Tin Pan Alley songs gained exposure through movies, exemplified by Fred Astaire's hits with Ginger Rogers, such as "Cheek to Cheek" from Top Hat. Overall, musical theater and film served as effective means to promote songs from Tin Pan Alley. But until the advent of rock and roll, the heart of the business was squarely in sheet music sales. 3) The singer steps forward The singer and the big bands one of the most important objectives for all Tin Pan Alley publishers was to get their songs on the radio ○ most radio performers until late 1940 were live, promoting a song meant much more for music publishers than just getting a record out bandleaders and singers had to be convinced to perform a song and in the process be persuaded that using the song in their live shows would also serve their own career interests—and for most musicians during that era (much as today), “career interests” meant “future bookings for more money.” Publishers negotiated with bandleaders, singers, and radio producers to feature their songs in live broadcasts,These broadcasts were crucial for promoting artists and securing future bookings. The relationship among radio networks, performers, and song publishers was mutually beneficial. The era from 1935 to 1945 is considered the Big Band era ○ during this time, dance bands employed a rhythm section of dance bands employed a rhythm section with many instruments to create arrangments of tin pan alley songs designed to provide music appropriate for dancing, while also featuring the instrumental prowess of the musicians and the virtuosity of the arranger. ○ During the big band era, musical arrangements primarily emphasized the band itself, often giving the vocalist only one chorus of a song. Instrumental sections and solos were featured both before and after the singer. For instance, Glenn Miller's 1942 hit "A String of Pearls" had no vocals at all.  This focus on the band contrasts sharply with rock music, where the vocalist is typically the central element of the song, with instrumental solos serving to add variety. In big band music, it was the vocalist who provided that variety instead. ○ despite the general focus during the big band era on the bands themselves a number of performing artists' careers independent from any particular band Bn Crospy in the 30’s and 40’s was the most important pop singer and also acted in films The Andrews sisters and Mills brothers were also important figures in the 35-45 period, each ringing up a long series of hit records and making harmony singing their trademark. as one precursor to the doo-wop and girl groups that played an important role in rock and roll in the 1950s and 1960s. Frank Sinatra established a new model for pop music singers; building in part on Crosby’s accomplishments ○ Sinatra made the singer, not the band, the star of the show, and thus paved the way for later rock and roll singers like Elvis Presley and Pat Boone. Frank Sinatra began his career as a singer with the Harry James and Tommy Dorsey big bands before going solo in 1942, achieving success with "All or Nothing at All." ○ His good looks and rebellious charm made him an instant teen idol, drawing comparisons to the rock and roll frenzy that would follow a decade later. Despite his solo success and fan hysteria, Sinatra viewed himself as a musician and credited his vocal technique to his time studying big band musicians. I’ve Got a Crush on you (1948) is a good example of his distinctive singing style, employed in a song that reinforced his teen idol image Sinatra went on to become one of the most successful singers of the post–World War II era, selling millions of records and playing to packed houses well into the 1980s. After Sinatra's early success, many singers imitated him, as vocalists replaced big bands as the music industry's focus.  ○ Financial pressures also led to the breakup of many big bands, as it became too costly to maintain large groups of musicians. ○ By the end of the 1940s, the big band era had ended, and new singers emerged without ties to big bands, marking a significant shift in the music scene. The new singers continued to depend on Tin Pan Alley for songs, and the focus on singing created a stronger vehicle for song sales. The song of pop in the early 50’s Pop music in the early 1950s is often considered corny and wholesome, epitomized by songs like Patti Page's "How Much Is That Doggie in the Window?" ○ However, there was more variety during this period. Singers like Eddie Fisher and Tony Bennett brought a new, youth-oriented style influenced by Sinatra, with hits such as Fisher's "Oh! My Pa-Pa" (1954) and Bennett's "Rags to Riches" (1953), where the focus shifted to the singer, with the orchestra playing a supporting role. In the early 1950s, Johnnie Ray brought emotional intensity to male vocals with his hit "Cry" in 1951. Female vocalists also found success, with Patti Page's "The Tennessee Waltz" topping charts for 13 weeks in 1950, ○ while Jo Stafford's "You Belong to Me" (1952) and Kay Starr's "Wheel of Fortune" (1952) followed a similar singer-centered format. Rosemary Clooney stood out with her unique hit "Come On-A My House" (1951), featuring a rhythmic Armenian influence and innovative harpsichord use. Johnnie Ray, cry What’s the source? Act of the year: frank sinatra In the mid-1940s, Frank Sinatra rose to prominence as a vocalist from the swing era, earning the title "Act of the Year" in a 1945 Metronome profile. The article praised his professionalism, industry influence, and down-to-earth qualities like authenticity, sincerity, and approachability. ○ Ironically, though Sinatra later disapproved of rock and roll, these same traits became central to the rise of rock music a decade later. Frank Sinatra with Harry James and his orchestra “all or Nothing at all”  Mainstream pop music before the rise of rock and roll was created for a family audience, appealing to teenagers, parents, and grandparents alike. It avoided controversial topics, focusing on wholesome themes. ○ A prime example is the 1953 hit "I'm Sittin' on Top of the World" by Les Paul and Mary Ford, which showcased a cheerful, wholesome sound and the duo's signature layering of guitars and vocals. "I'm Sittin' on Top of the World" by Les Paul and Mary Ford, As rock and roll emerged, the Tin Pan Alley music business was  unprepared, largely because it had neglected the rising styles of rhythm and blues and country and western. ○ Major record companies like Columbia, Decca, and RCA-Victor had avoided these markets, doubting their profitability and struggling to succeed in them. ○ Despite this, rhythm and blues and country and western evolved independently during the 1930s, '40s, and '50s. Understanding the origins of rock and roll requires tracing the parallel development of these two genres. Les Paul, electronic guitars and multicultural recording Les Paul pioneered a new role for the electric guitar in pop music. He made significant innovations in electronics and recording during the 1950s. ○ These innovations had a lasting impact on popular music. His contributions influenced both the style and technology of music production. As guitar and arranger for Les Paul and mary ford Les Paul, a leading guitarist during the big band era, was a master of multiple styles, including jazz and country. ○ Early in his career, he performed as the country singer "Rhubarb Red" on local radio. In 1949, he married country singer Mary Ford, and they formed a successful musical duo known for their onstage banter and distinctive pop style. ○ Paul arranged their music and used his electronic innovations to create a unique sound that made their records highly successful. An inventor of the solid body and electric guitar Les Paul was one of the first to experiment with electric guitars, moving away from traditional hollow-body designs. ○ He believed a solid body would reduce vibrations and produce a purer electric sound. ○ In 1941, he designed one of the first solid-body electric guitars, known as "the log." This led to his collaboration with Gibson in 1951 to create the iconic Gibson Les Paul guitar, which became a staple in rock music. Around the same time, Leo Fender developed his Broadcaster, Telecaster, and later Stratocaster models, which rivaled the Les Paul in popularity.  4) Regional styles “Country” Music in the Southeast in the 1930s. Before 1945, country and western music remained regional, unlike mainstream pop on radio networks. ○ these regional styles later united under "country and western" after World War II, with Nashville emerging as the genre's hub in the late 1940s. These styles included "country" music from the southeast and "western" music from the west. Southeastern country music was rooted in folk traditions derived from British Isles influences. ○ Early recordings, made by producer Ralph Peer, captured authentic regional sounds, including performances by "Fiddlin'" John Carson and Gid Tanner and His Skillet Lickers. ○ Peer recorded musicians in small towns, preserving the genre's folk roots. The Carter Family, known for their harmonized vocals and instrumentation like acoustic guitar and autoharp, exemplified this down-home style, heavily influenced by white gospel music. Maybelle Carter's distinctive playing style, using her thumb for melody and her fingers for strumming, became a key aspect of their music. Songs like "Can the Circle Be Unbroken" (1935) reflected the genre's musical style and confessional spirit. Roy Acuff and His Crazy Tennesseans also contributed to the sound, incorporating Hawaiian slide guitar, which paved the way for the later use of the pedal steel guitar in country music. "Western" Music in the Southwest and California in the 1930s. if country is most associated with the Appalachian mountains, western music is the most closely linked with the wide open prairie of the Cowboys Gene Autry was the first singing cowboy in a series of Wild West movies, with songs like "Back in the Saddle Again" showcasing the genre. Roy Rogers also contributed to this musical tradition. Patsy Montana emerged as the singing cowgirl with her hit "I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart" (1935), incorporating a yodeling style influenced by Jimmie Rodgers. While historians may debate the authenticity of this music, these artists played a key role in shaping the public's perception of "cowboy music."  Western swing was a genre that blended big band elements with cowboy music, popularized by Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys and Milton Brown and His Musical Brownies. ○ The style featured a mix of instruments, including rhythm sections, horns, fiddles, steel guitars, and sometimes mariachi-style trumpets. Bob Wills's "New San Antonio Rose" (1940) exemplified this eclectic blend of northeastern dance band styles and southwestern hoedown music. Bing Crosby's 1941 rendition of "New San Antonio Rose" became a national hit, bringing significant attention to western swing and benefiting Wills's band. By the 1940s, Wills and His Playboys appeared in Hollywood films, broadening the American audience's understanding of western music beyond traditional cowboy songs. Jimmie Rodgers, the First Star of Country Music. When considering the development of country and western music, it's essential to recognize its rise to mainstream popularity. ○ Movies played a significant role in promoting western music, with Gene Autry and Roy Rogers as major stars. Jimmie Rodgers is a pivotal figure in early country music, achieving national fame despite his brief career; ○ His performances were typically solo, accompanied by acoustic guitar. His song "Blue Yodel" (1927), also known as "T for Texas," showcased his signature yodeling style and influenced many later artists, including Autry, Ernest Tubb, and Eddy Arnold. ○ Jimmie Rodgers was known as "The Blue Yodeler" and "The Singing Brakeman," which reflected rustic images that were not entirely accurate. These personas depicted him as a back-porch musician and a wandering hobo, respectively, though he often performed in stylish clothing. While he did work on the railroad, these images were largely contrived to market his music. This early manipulation of his image highlighted the importance of marketing in country music. ○ Rodgers's legacy includes both his musical contributions and the way his persona was crafted for public reception, influencing the style of country barn-dance radio shows like the Grand Ole Opry.  5) RECORDINGS AND RADIO FURTHER A NATIONAL SOUND FOR COUNTRY AND WESTERN MUSIC Superstation Radio Broadcasts in Prime Time. During the 1930s and '40s, mainstream pop music reached a national audience, while country and western music primarily had regional exposure through radio. In 1922, Atlanta's WSB aired local country music, including artists like "Fiddlin'" John Carson and Gid Tanner, and Fort Worth's WBAP featured barn-dance programs with hoedown fiddle music. Regional stations, particularly WSM in Nashville (home of the Grand Ole Opry) and WLS in Chicago (National Barndance), began to broadcast country music widely. ○ In 1932, WSM became a clear-channel station, expanding its reach to much of the southeast and even into Texas. The Grand Ole Opry began national broadcasts on NBC in 1939, greatly increasing its audience and attracting many musicians looking for exposure. While the Opry eventually became the most important venue for country music, the National Barndance reached a national audience earlier, starting its broadcasts on NBC in 1933 and popularizing country music in the Midwest. ○ In addition to the National Barndance, which aired on NBC in 1933, listeners in the northeast could also enjoy country and western music through the Wheeling Jamboree from WWVA in West Virginia. Numerous local and regional barn-dance shows across the U.S. provided access to country music, although it remained a novelty on network radio compared to the more mainstream pop music of the time.  Country Music during World War II (War Buddies). World War II played a key role in spreading country music beyond the South. ○ Soldiers from various regions shared their favorite music while serving together overseas, leading many northerners to discover country and western music through their southern comrades. ○ Country singers gained immense popularity among the troops, with Roy Acuff even being voted the best singer by soldiers in Munich, surpassing Frank Sinatra. ○ In a bid to insult American soldiers, Japanese attackers on Okinawa even referenced Acuff in their battle cry. During World War II, many southerners migrated north to fill factory jobs created by the war effort. ○ Cities like Detroit, Baltimore, Washington D.C., Cincinnati, Chicago, and Los Angeles became popular destinations. These southerners brought their love of country and western music with them, making it a top choice in local bars and clubs, as reflected by jukebox records. Nashville Becomes Country and Western Headquarters. After World War II, Nashville emerged as the primary hub for country and western music, surpassing growth on the West Coast ○ Home to the Grand Ole Opry since 1925, Nashville's Opry became the most prestigious country music radio show by the late 1940s. ○ In the postwar years, Nashville also became a key center for country music recording and publishing, with the industry growing more sophisticated to meet rising national demand. ○ As more musicians came to Nashville to record, especially at Castle Recording Company, promoters, booking agents, and record companies followed, consolidating the industry there. The catalyst for Nashville's music industry growth was the founding of Acuff-Rose, a publishing firm created by singer Roy Acuff and songwriter Fred Rose in 1942. Unlike traditional Tin Pan Alley publishers, Acuff-Rose focused on getting their songs recorded and performed by country artists. Their success grew after Patti Page's version of "The Tennessee Waltz" became a hit in 1950. In 1946, Fred Rose signed the then-unknown Hank Williams as a songwriter, further strengthening the firm's influence.  6) HANK WILLIAMS, COUNTRY MUSIC SINGER-SONGWRITER IN THE BIG BUSINESS OF COUNTRY AND WESTERN a short career that cast a long shadow In the early 1950s, Hank Williams became the defining figure of country and western music, surpassing the popularity of earlier stars like Jimmie Rodgers, Gene Autry, and Roy Acuff. ○ Though his first recorded song was performed by Molly O'Day in 1946, by 1948 Williams found success as a performer, becoming a regular on the Louisiana Hayride radio show. This same show would later launch Elvis Presley's career. Hank Williams's first major hit was "Lovesick Blues," a Tin Pan Alley song. ○ Its success made him a regular on the Grand Ole Opry in 1949, where he thrived until his death on New Year's Day, 1953, at the age of twenty-nine. ○ Though his career lasted less than five years, his music influenced generations of country singers. ○ Williams's image as a hard-living, young singer-songwriter who died too soon became a romanticized figure for future rock musicians as well. Hank Williams's singing style was influenced by Roy Acuff and Ernest Tubb, with vocal inflections that conveyed deep emotional sincerity. ○ His direct and simple lyrics, paired with heartfelt performances, made listeners feel his songs were autobiographical, whether or not they were. ○ Williams became the embodiment of "pure country" and a major influence on future country performers and songwriters. Hank Williams, “Hey Good Lookin’” (1951) 7) Bluegrass, the new, old-time country music Bill Monroe and His Blue Grass Boys Bluegrass music, though it sounds old, actually developed after World War II alongside country music. ○ Its origins trace back to Bill Monroe and His Blue Grass Boys, who first performed in 1939 and became more popular in the late 1940s. The group's lineup after 1945, set the standard for future bluegrass bands. Notable bluegrass songs include "The Ballad of Jed Clampett" from The Beverly Hillbillies, "Foggy Mountain Breakdown" from Bonnie and Clyde, and "Dueling Banjos" from Deliverance. Bluegrass music features virtuosic instrumental solos, often compared to jazz for its technical skill. Monroe's late-1940s band had three standout soloists: Chubby Wise, Earl Scruggs, and Bill Monroe.  ○ The solos often took precedence over singing in the group's performances. ○ Earl Scruggs revolutionized banjo playing with his "three-finger roll" technique, allowing more complex passages. ○ Scruggs and Lester Flatt left Monroe's band in 1948 to form their own group. Monroe's band inspired many musicians to embrace bluegrass in later years. By the early 1950s, country and western music had gained national recognition, evolving from a regional style. ○ Its growth was driven by cowboy and western swing music in movies, barn-dance radio shows, and stars like Gene Autry, Jimmie Rodgers, Roy Acuff, and Hank Williams. ○ Despite its rise in popularity through the 1930s-1950s, country and western remained distinct from mainstream pop, which dominated in sales and profitability. ○ This growth coincided with the emergence of rock and roll. Early rock and roll blurred the lines between pop, country, and western, but during this time, those boundaries remained distinct. ○ Rhythm and blues (R&B) was also separate from mainstream pop, country, and western music, perceived as music made for and by Black Americans. ○ Country and western was associated with low-income white audiences. ○ The growth of R&B parallels the rise of country and western in the pre-rock and roll era. ○ The rise of R&B paralleled that of country and western, both contributing to the development of early rock and roll. 8) RURAL (DELTA) AND URBAN BLUES Migration Patterns from the Rural South to the Urban North. Rhythm and blues (R&B) emerged after World War II as popular music made by Black musicians for Black audiences, largely existing outside of mainstream pop due to racial segregation. While country and western had some presence in mainstream pop, R&B was mostly unknown to white listeners. ○ This separation was a result of the racial divide in American culture, where most white Americans were unfamiliar with Black culture.  ○ The migration of Black southerners to northern cities like Memphis, Chicago, and Detroit brought R&B with them, much like the migration of white southerners. After World War I, blues gained popularity with mainstream white audiences through W.C. Handy's popular sheet music, like "Memphis Blues" and "St. Louis Blues," and records by Black female singers. ○ The first major success in blues recording came in 1923 with Bessie Smith's hit "Down Hearted Blues," selling over a million copies. Smith, from Tennessee, was seen as an authentic blues artist due to her Southern roots and early exposure to blues through tent and minstrel shows. She recorded in New York with top jazz musicians like Louis Armstrong. However, by the late 1920s, her career and the blues' mainstream appeal declined. As rural Black Americans migrated to cities like Memphis in the 1930s and '40s, the city's music scene thrived as musicians adapted rural blues for urban clubs. ○ Record companies, hoping to replicate Bessie Smith's success, sought out new blues artists in the South during the 1920s and '30s. ○ One standout was Robert Johnson, whose 1936-37 recordings became highly influential on 1960s rock guitarists, especially through Eric Clapton's endorsement. Like many rural blues singers, Johnson performed solo, singing and accompanying himself on acoustic guitar. ○ Rural blues allowed for great flexibility in structure, as heard in Robert Johnson's "Cross Roads Blues" (1936), where he altered traditional patterns to suit his expression. However, as blues musicians moved to urban clubs, they formed electric combos with guitars, bass, piano, drums, harmonica, and microphones, leading to a more structured style. ○ This electric blues spread, and by the early 1950s, Chicago became the leading blues center. Despite some musician movement, blues scenes in cities like Memphis and Chicago remained isolated, with records staying regional, creating distinct local styles, similar to country and western music. Though rhythm and blues remained mostly regional in the 1940s, Louis Jordan and His Tympani Five gained pop success with hits like "G.I. Jive" (1944), "Caldonia Boogie" (1945), and "Choo Choo Ch'boogie" (1946).  ○ Jordan blended swing tempos with a smaller band, using just a rhythm section and his saxophone, making it both musically and financially practical. ○ His upbeat, often humorous vocal delivery addressed social issues like racism and poverty. ○ Jordan's influence is evident in the comical songs of the Coasters and the lively delivery and wordplay of Chuck Berry. Regional Radio and the Black Experience in 1950s America A new approach to radio significantly helped spread rhythm and blues beyond regional Black communities. ○ After television's introduction, radio stations adapted their financial strategies by selling advertising time. To attract specific listener demographics, they programmed music tailored to those audiences. This enabled stations to present their listener base to sponsors, who had their own target audiences in mind for their products. By the early 1950s, the national audience for popular music shifted from radio to television, forcing radio to adapt. ○ Many stations adopted a local approach, recognizing the growing Black populations in urban areas as a distinct community with specific needs. ○ In 1948, WDIA in Memphis began programming for the local Black audience, playing rhythm and blues and attracting sponsors interested in serving this demographic. This led to the emergence of Black stations and programs across the country, providing music and informing Black listeners about advertisers welcoming their business. Racial segregation affected Black Americans' access to public spaces and services, with designated areas for "colored" customers. ○ Information about which advertisers welcomed Black clientele was crucial during this time. ○ Black radio stations and programs played an important role in connecting Black listeners with businesses that were inclusive and supportive. Independent Labels Target Regional Audiences. As radio stations focused on rhythm and blues emerged across the U.S., independent record labels specializing in Black popular music also rose, including Sun Records, Chess Records, King Records, and Atlantic Records. ○ Unlike major labels like Decca and RCA-Victor, which had extensive financial resources and distribution networks, independent labels often operated with minimal staff and focused on local markets.  ○ While major labels prioritized mainstream pop due to its higher profitability, this created space for independents to survive and even thrive in the rhythm and blues market. Between 1945 and 1955, rhythm and blues was primarily aimed at Black urban listeners, with little expectation of white audiences. ○ While the industry focused on serving Black listeners, white teenagers began to discover and appreciate rhythm and blues through radio, paving the way for the emergence of rock and roll. It's important to note that rhythm and blues was not a single style, but rather a collection of musical styles unified by its audience. In the music business, records intended for Black listeners were categorized as rhythm and blues, leading to the grouping of various distinctive Black pop styles. 9) RHYTHM AND BLUES AS A MARKETING CATEGORY THAT INCLUDES A BROAD RANGE OF MUSICAL STYLES The Influence of Gospel Music (Rural Southern Church Traditions). A key trait of rhythm and blues during this era was its connection to gospel music. Many southern Black singers learned to perform in church, and this influence is evident in the harmony singing of doo-wop and in the vocal techniques of rhythm and blues artists. ○ Elements like vocal embellishments and call-and-response patterns stemmed from gospel traditions. Sometimes, religious lyrics were adapted for pop songs, as seen in Ray Charles's "I Got a Woman." ○ This blending of secular and religious music sparked controversy in the Black community, with some viewing it as sacrilegious. Performers transitioning from gospel to pop often felt guilty about "selling out," a sentiment that would continue to affect artists of both races following the rise of rock and roll. Chess Records and Chicago Electric Blues. Ike Turner, working as a talent scout for Sam Phillips's Sun Records in Memphis, typically sought new performers in churches and bars. The gospel scene was sacred, while blues had a secular foundation.  By the early 1950s, Chicago emerged as the center of electric blues, largely due to the Chess brothers, Phil and Leonard, who founded Chess Records in 1947. ○ The label, along with its subsidiary Checker, featured influential artists like Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters. ○ Chess's style was characterized by emotionally direct vocals and instrumental playing that combined skill with a raw edge. ○ Early recordings used simple equipment, resulting in a rough sound that contrasted with major label productions. This lack of polish contributed to an aura of authenticity that resonated with future rock and roll artists. During their early years, the Chess brothers focused on maximizing their resources to produce music. ○ Key examples of Chicago electric blues include Howlin' Wolf's "Evil" (1954), Muddy Waters's "I'm Your Hoochie Cooche Man" (1954), and Bo Diddley's "I'm a Man" (1955). These songs featured adult-oriented lyrics delivered with passion rather than refinement, backed by skilled instrumental playing. While Chess also recorded artists who might appeal to white audiences, their electric blues records largely ignored white middle-class sensibilities, significantly influencing the development of rock and roll. Muddy Waters, “I’m Your Hoochie Cooche Man” (1954) bi Atlantic and Black Pop. Atlantic Records, founded in 1948 by Ahmet Ertegun and Herb Abramson, aimed for a polished pop sound influenced by mainstream production. ○ They featured accomplished artists like Ruth Brown and Ray Charles. While Atlantic produced some blues records, its primary focus was on vocal performances and well-structured songs. ○ For instance, Ruth Brown's "Mama, He Treats Your Daughter Mean" (1952) exemplifies this trend, blending blues, gospel, and big band pop influences. In contrast to Chess Records' raw, instrumentally focused electric blues, Atlantic singles were cleaner, more vocal-centric, and pop-oriented.  Together, the outputs of these two labels illustrate the diverse stylistic range of 1950s rhythm and blues, marking them as key players in the era's music scene. Doo-Wop (Urban Vocal Music). In the years after World War II, doo-wop groups emerged from urban neighborhoods in America, often performing a cappella due to a lack of instruments. ○ Local groups would engage in street singing contests, and independent labels began recording these talents. Professional musicians would learn the groups' vocal arrangements to provide accompaniment on instruments like piano, bass, and drums. This collaboration resulted in doo-wop, characterized by a lead singer supported by harmonizing backup vocals. ○ The songs typically followed an AABA structure derived form Tin àn alley and featured a compound time rhythm, where the beat is divided into three equal parts, often emphasized with chords played on the piano. "Sh-Boom" (1954) is a classic example of doo-wop, featuring the catchy "sh-boom" syllables in its vocal arrangements. ○ The song includes a solo singer for the initial verses, a contrasting section with different group members, and concludes with harmonious singing from the entire group. ○ While "Sh-Boom" is an upbeat track, many doo-wop songs were ballads suited for slow dancing, such as the Five Satins' "In the Still of the Night" (1956). Stylistically, doo-wop differs from Chicago blues and Atlantic pop, but all these genres were categorized as rhythm and blues in the market. 10) RHYTHM AND BLUES AS A “DANGEROUS INFLUENCE” ON AMERICAN (WHITE) YOUTH Stagger Lee and the Black Male Swagger. In the early 1950s, as white teenagers increasingly embraced rhythm and blues, their parents expressed concern about the music's influence, often rooted in racial stereotypes. ○ A prominent fear was the Stagger Lee myth, which portrayed Black men as defiant and hypersexual, seeking to conquer white women.  This stereotype suggested that teenage girls were particularly vulnerable, leading to heightened anxiety among parents in the white community. Many white listeners interpreted Muddy Waters's song "I Just Wanna Make Love to You" in a way that reinforced existing stereotypes about Black men, reflecting a fundamental misunderstanding of Black culture. ○ This misinterpretation led many white parents to view rhythm and blues as a dangerous influence on their teenagers, prompting efforts to suppress both this music and the rock and roll that evolved from it. Hokum Blues and Fun with Double Meanings. Songs with sexual double entendres have a long history, dating back to composers like John Dowland. ○ In American popular music, Jimmie Rodgers's "Pistol Packin' Papa" includes playful sexual innuendos, while mid-century Black culture had a tradition of "hokum blues" that humorously addressed adult relationships and sexuality. For example, Big Mama Thornton's "Hound Dog," written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, uses phrases like "snoopin' 'round my door" and "wag your tail" to suggest sexual meanings within a playful context, demonstrating how such lyrics can carry deeper interpretations. Big Joe Turner, “Shake, Rattle, and Roll” (1954)  Big Joe Turner's "Shake, Rattle, and Roll," released by Atlantic Records in 1954, exemplifies hokum blues with its playful sexual innuendos. ○ The song was later covered by Bill Haley and His Comets, who adapted the lyrics to be more acceptable for white audiences. Turner's original version includes suggestive lines about his lover and metaphors like "one-eyed cat" and "seafood store," which imply sexual meanings. While Turner's rendition would have been considered obscene in mid-1950s white middle-class culture, Haley's adaptation removed many sensual references, making the song seem more wholesome, although some suggestive lines remained. ○ In Bill Haley's version of "Shake, Rattle, and Roll," the rhythmic feel is significantly altered compared to Big Joe Turner's original. Turner's rendition has a laid-back rhythm, while Haley's version is more frantic, pushing the beat and creating a peppier, happier atmosphere. This change helps present the song as lighthearted and focused on "good, clean fun." Haley's adaptation serves as a prototype for the pop adaptation of rhythm and blues, shaping the early sound of rock and roll.  In the early 1950s, rhythm and blues was quite distinct from mainstream pop music, with industry insiders believing it only appealed to Black listeners. ○ However, by the mid-decade, white middle-class teenagers showed interest in both rhythm and blues and country and western, as these genres were accessible via radio. ○ Despite this crossover, the music business remained segregated, prioritizing pop music, which was heavily influenced by Tin Pan Alley, while rhythm and blues and country focused more on records than songs. ○ The emergence of rock and roll in 1955 challenged these boundaries and threatened the established music business model and the moral sensibilities of some white Americans. Figures like Elvis Presley symbolized this shift, as they appeared to clash with traditional middle-class values, putting Tin Pan Alley under pressure from these evolving musical styles. 1950 the 1950s seemed to be a kinder, simpler, and more innocent decade ○ Many of the values were reflected in popular TV shows ○ but the decade also saw the birth of the modern civil rights movement marked the end of the jim crow era playboy magazine and rock and roll During the Cold War, tensions escalated between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, despite having been allies in World War II. ○ Americans became increasingly suspicious of communist infiltration, a fear amplified by high-profile espionage cases such as those of Alger Hiss and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. ○ Senator Joseph McCarthy led a fervent anti-communist campaign, often called the "Red Scare," investigating alleged communists in various sectors. ○ This paranoia intensified as the Soviets advanced technologically, launching the Sputnik satellite in 1957, which fueled a space race ultimately won by the U.S. with the 1969 moon landing. In the post-World War II era, a mix of technological advancements, space exploration, and Cold War fears led to a surge in American interest in science fiction, reflected in films like Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956), which played on anxieties about hidden threats, such as communist infiltration. ○ Meanwhile, the U.S. economy thrived, with booming suburban development and rising demand for consumer goods. Cars became central to American life, and the AM radios in them helped popularize  rock and roll among teenagers, allowing them to enjoy the new music genre away from their parents' oversight. Though rock and roll rebelliousness was finding its way into teenagers’ cars, traditional middle-American values were strongly reinforced on 1950s television ○ Hugh Hefner introduced Playboy, a magazine devoted to such modern and sophisticated topics in the 1950s civil rights movement included the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled school segregation unconstitutional, and Rosa Parks' arrest in 1955, sparking a successful bus boycott led by Martin Luther King Jr. ○ These legal victories, though met with resistance, were pivotal in advancing civil rights. In 1957, President Eisenhower sent National Guard troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, to protect Black students integrating an all-white school, highlighting the growing racial tensions and federal involvement in desegregation efforts. In the early 1960s, folk music aligned with the civil rights movement, and by the decade's end, the cause was embraced by the growing rock-music counterculture. ○ Rhythm and blues, perceived as a threat to white culture, along with the rise of controversial rock and roll, reflected the era's social tensions. ○ The 1950s were marked by contradictions, with figures like Joseph McCarthy and Martin Luther King Jr., alongside consumerism, civil rights struggles, and cultural icons like Leave It to Beaver and Playboy. From these contradictions emerged rock and roll, a unifying force across racial and regional divides. CHAPTER 2 : THE BIRTH AND FIRST FLOURISHING OF ROCK AND ROLL 1955, is believed to be the first year of rock and roll ○ drawing a line between the world before rock and roll that everything follows 1) THE RISE OF YOUTH CULTURE IN THE 1950s The First Wave of War Babies Reaches Adolescence (This Is Not Your Father’s Pop Music) After World War II, American society saw the rise of a teen-focused pop culture, especially among white, middle-class teens.  ○ Unlike earlier generations, these teenagers enjoyed an extended period of youth with their own fashion, music, and entertainment, fueled by post-war affluence and a desire for "normalcy." ○ By 1955, many teens sought music that differed from their parents', turning to rhythm and blues, which felt exciting, exotic, and rebellious. This marked the beginning of a distinct youth culture centered on music and leisure. In the 1950s, white teens listening to rhythm and blues became an act of rebellion against adult responsibilities. ○ This social conflict was reflected in films like The Wild One (1953) and Rebel Without a Cause (1955), which portrayed teen angst but used traditional soundtracks. ○ However, Blackboard Jungle (1955) featured Bill Haley's "(We're Gonna) Rock around the Clock," linking rock music with teenage rebellion. The film's success, sparking youth riots in some theaters, propelled Haley's song to the top of the charts and cemented the association between rock music and youthful defiance. This marked a key moment in the rise of rock and roll. 2) RADIO AND RECORDS The Rise of the Disc Jockey. In the 1950s, radios became more accessible to white teenagers, exposing them to rhythm and blues music, which had previously been targeted at Black audiences. Disc jockeys (DJs) played a pivotal role in introducing this music to a wider audience. Alan Freed, a Cleveland DJ, began hosting The Moondog Show in 1951, playing rhythm and blues to a primarily white teen audience. ○ Freed's influence helped bring rock and roll into the popular mainstream, marking a key moment in the genre's rise and crossover appeal. Alan Freed was not the first DJ to play rhythm and blues on the radio. Before him, ○ DJs like Dewey Phillips in Memphis and Gene Nobles in Nashville were already popularizing the genre in the late 1940s. ○ Many early DJs were white, but listeners often assumed they were Black due to their on-air voices.  ○ By the late 1940s and 1950s, Black DJs such as Vernon Winslow in New Orleans and Jocko Henderson in Philadelphia gained prominence, with WDIA in Memphis featuring an all-Black staff. Freed's 1951 Cleveland show was modeled after these earlier programs, reflecting an already-established trend in other cities. Alan Freed's success in Cleveland led to his debut on WINS in New York in September 1954, where he replicated his success on a larger scale. ○ He renamed his show The Rock and Roll Party, which became syndicated nationally and even reached Europe. ○ By 1954-1955, Freed played a key role in popularizing rhythm and blues among white teenagers in major markets. ○ He expanded his influence by promoting concerts, producing films, and working on television, further cementing his role in bringing rock and roll to a wider audience. In 1958, Alan Freed took his concert show The Big Beat on the road, featuring acts like Jerry Lee Lewis and Buddy Holly. ○ He starred in films such as Rock around the Clock (1956) and Don't Knock the Rock (1957), which showcased early rock and roll acts. ○ Freed also hosted a TV dance show from 1958 to 1960. ○ Many teenagers viewed him as the father of rock and roll, but he faced backlash, with his concert shows often portrayed as teen riots. His national celebrity was mirrored by local DJs who also promoted rock and roll in their communities, further solidifying the genre's popularity. Aggressive marking by independent labels During the 1950s, most rhythm and blues music that teens heard on the radio was released by independent labels, which operated on a smaller scale than major labels like Decca and RCA. ○ Major labels had established manufacturing and distribution networks, while indie labels often had to collaborate for distribution and improvise their marketing strategies. Success for these indie labels relied heavily on gaining radio play, which involved building relationships with DJs through incentives like cash, merchandise, or  entertainment. Additionally, getting records into stores and jukeboxes was crucial for sales. This practice of paying DJs to promote records became known as "payola." - What’s the source The term "rock and roll" has a varied history in popular music before the 1950s. ○ It first appeared in 1922 when blues singer Trixie Smith used it as sexual innuendo in her song "My Man Rocks Me (With One Steady Roll). ○ In the 1930s, the Boswell Sisters recorded a song literally titled "Rock and Roll." ○ By the early 1950s, the term began to be associated with youth culture, featured in songs by artists like "Wild Bill" Moore and Little Jimmy Dickens. ○ An article in Variety in early 1955 highlighted Alan Freed's "Rock and Roll Party," showcasing the blending of races and the emergence of a vibrant youth culture linked to this music style. Alan Freed, a popular R&B "rock 'n' roll" DJ, recently moved from Cleveland to New York and became a major influence in nighttime radio. ○ Freed's popularity was evident at a two-night "Rock 'n' Roll" party he promoted at St. Nicholas Arena, drawing 15,000 attendees over the weekend—far exceeding the arena's 6,000 capacity. The event grossed about $30,000, surpassing any jazz concert in New York. The crowd was lively, with dancing and excitement lasting from 8 p.m. to 2 a.m., though some unruly behavior and exhaustion were noted. - like motorcycles Kids love rhythm & blues (R&B) because it's exciting and noisy, similar to riding motorcycles, as noted by a music executive. ○ At Alan Freed's "Rock 'n' Roll" concert at St. Nicholas Arena, the audience enthusiastically contributed to the noise with whistles and cheers. ○ Freed hosted a lineup of top R&B acts, including The Drifters, Fats Domino, and Joe Turner, performing in rotation over six hours. The repetitive, insistent beat of R&B hypnotized the crowd, reminiscent of the swing era. Freed, a champion of R&B, has seen his influence grow, with other New York  DJs and pop artists like Perry Como and Tony Bennett embracing R&B tunes. Payola was used by both independent and major labels, but it was especially crucial for indie labels, allowing them to compete with the bigger budgets of major labels. ○ While major label employees often worked with company money, indie label owners had their own money at risk. ○ In the early 1950s, it was believed that indie labels couldn't compete in the pop market, so they focused on rhythm and blues (R&B) and country and western genres. The rise of rock and roll can be credited to the entrepreneurship of indie labels and DJs, both operating on the fringes of their industries. Major labels largely ignored R&B because the profits weren't deemed worth the effort. ○ However, when R&B began appearing on pop charts in the early 1950s, it signaled a major industry shift. 3) CROSSOVERS AND COVERS Hit Records and the Charts. To succeed in the music business, executives, radio station managers, record store owners, and jukebox distributors must treat music as a business. ○ They focus on markets, product, distribution, and promotion, aiming to identify trends to meet peak consumer demand. ○ Timing is crucial: profits rise with the right timing, but poor timing can lead to losses ○ Industry professionals rely on magazines like Cashbox and Billboard, which provided sales charts predicting trends. ○ Store owners and jukebox distributors used these charts to decide which records to stock or remove to maximize sales and jukebox plays. Doo-wop and Crossover Doo-wop played a key role in rhythm and blues before 1955, originating from African American vocal quartets in urban areas.  ○ Groups like the Mills Brothers and the Ink Spots popularized vocal-group music in the 1940s. ○ The Orioles’ "Cryin' in the Chapel" and the Chords' "Sh-Boom" were among the first doo-wop hits to cross into the pop charts, leading independent labels to scout for vocal groups. These groups often had an amateurish charm, with hits typically based on their best arrangement. ○ While some groups like Clyde McPhatter and the Drifters had continued success with label support, others struggled with follow-ups. The Platters, however, were a standout, with 18 pop Top 40 hits between 1955 and 1960. Reading the Chart Numbers In this book, chart positions are abbreviated to track a record's success. Pop records are noted with a "p" (e.g., "p1, 1955" for a number one pop hit in 1955), rhythm and blues with an "r," and country with a "c." British chart positions, cited later in the book, use "uk" from Record Retailer. ○ For example, "p3 r1, 1956" means the record reached number three on the pop charts and number one on the R&B charts in 1956. ○ Chart numbers, while useful for comparison, are not always precise and can be manipulated, offering only a general measure of a record's success. Industry charts were divided by consumer purchasing patterns, not musical style, and categorized records based on assumed audience demographics. ○ Pop charts targeted white, middle-class listeners, rhythm and blues (R&B) charts were aimed at Black urban audiences, and country and western charts focused on low-income white listeners. Despite these segregated classifications, evidence suggests many Black listeners enjoyed pop and country, and vice versa. A key shift occurred in the early 1950s when middle-class white teens began embracing R&B, blurring the boundaries between chart classifications. ○ Crossover: A song or record that holds a prominent position on more than one chart (pop, rhythm & blues, or country) is called a "crossover." ○ Cover Versions: A new version of a song by a different artist is called a "cover." Both original and cover versions can crossover to different charts. ○ Pre-1955 Stability: Until 1955, crossovers were rare, with about 10% of R&B hits crossing over between 1950-1953. ○ Rising Trend: From 1954, crossover rates rose significantly, with 25% of R&B hits crossing over that year and 94% by 1958.  ○ Racial Disparity: White artists' cover versions of R&B songs often performed better on the pop charts than the original versions by Black artists, largely due to faster, broader distribution and racial biases in listener tastes. ○ Resentment: Black artists whose records were copied by white performers felt significant resentment due to this racial disparity. 4) THE FIRST ROCK AND ROLLERS CROSS OVER Fats Domino. Artist: Antoine "Fats" Domino Crossover Success: One of the early rockers to achieve consistent crossover success between rhythm and blues and pop charts. Notable Early Hits: ○ "The Fat Man" (1950) ○ "Goin' Home" (1952) ○ "Something's Wrong" (1953) Breakthrough Crossover: ○ "Ain't It a Shame" (1955): Reached number one on R&B charts and peaked at number ten on pop charts. Sustained Success: ○ Released thirty-seven Top 40 singles between 1955 and 1963. ○ Notable hits include: "I'm in Love Again" (r1, p3, 1956) "Blueberry Hill" (r1, p2, 1956) "I'm Walkin'" (r1, p4, 1957) Musical S