مراجعة مركزة متميزين 2024 PDF

Ch.2 / Skeletal system (15 – 20 M.) Q/ What is the function of: 1. Skull → Protects the brain. 2. Thoracic cage → Protects heart and lungs. Osteocytes: they are star - like bone cells secrete ossein, which are arranged in the form of circles around a central canal called as Haversian canal..‫ تترتب بشكل حلقات حول قناة مركزية تدعى بقناة هافرس‬،‫ هي خاليا عظمية نجمية الشكل‬:‫الخاليا العظمية‬ Ossein: it is a solid substance of bones secreted by osteocytes..‫ هي مادة صلبة في العظام تفرز من الخاليا العظمية‬:‫المادة العظمية‬ Haversian canal: it is a central canal found in the centre of osteocytes. It is discovered by the scientist Clapton Havers (1657 - 1702). ‫ اكتشفت من قبل‬.‫ هي قناة مركزية توجد في مركز الخاليا العظمية‬:‫قناة هافرس‬.‫العالم كليبتون هافرس‬ Periosteum: It is an external membrane covers the outside of bone. It contains nerves and blood vessels to nourish the bone. ‫ يحتوي على أعصاب واوعية دموية لتغذية‬.‫هو غشاء خارجي يغطي العظم من الخارج‬: ‫القشرة أو السمحاق‬.‫العظم‬ Q / Explain the Chemical structure of bones. 1. Organic materials (35%): consist of colloidal proteins known as collagen and mucous-like substance called as mucole. Mucole resembles the albumin (white of egg) and it is important for bone flexibility. 2. Inorganic materials (65%): consist of phosphate, carbonate, calcium florid, manganese phosphate and sodium chloride. They are responsible for hardness of bone. Collagen: Colloidal organic material with percentage 35% of bone. It is important for bone flexibility..‫ لها أهمية في مرونة العظم‬.‫ في العظم‬%35 ‫ مادة عضوية غروية نسبتها‬: ‫الكوالجين‬ Mucole: mucous-like substance resembles the albumin and it is important for bone flexibility..‫ مادة تشبه المخاط مشابهة لأللبومين ولها أهمية في مرونة العظم‬: ‫الميوكول‬ Parts of human skeleton A- Axial Skeleton 1. Skull: it consists of 29 bones are: a. Cranial bones: 8 bones. b. Facial bones: 14 bones. c. Ear bones: are 3 bones; Malleus, Incus and Stapes. Foramen magnum: It is a big hole at the bottom of cranium through which the spinal cord passes..‫ هو عبارة عن ثقب كبير أسفل القحف يمر من خالله الحبل الشوكي‬: ‫الثقب األعظم‬ Fontanelle: are spaces which located between the bones of head in the child's skull and they are covered with a fibrous cartilaginous tissue..‫هي مسافات موجودة بين عظام الرأس في جمجمة الطفل وتحاط بنسيج غضروفي ليفي‬: ‫اليافوخات‬ Q / Numerate the regions of a tooth? A / 1. Crown 2. Neck 3. Root Q / What is the structure of tooth? 1. Dentine: it is a basic and very solid substance in the structure of tooth, contains calcic materials. 2. Enamel. 3. Cementum. 4. Pulp. 5. Dental nerves and blood vessels enter through apical foramen. Apical foramen: it is a hole found at the bottom of the tooth root, the nerves and blood vessels enter through it..‫ تمر من خالله األعصاب واألوعية الدموية‬,‫هو ثقب موجود في أسفل جذر السن‬: ‫الثقب القمي‬ Q / How to take care of your teeth? 1. Teeth must be brushed after eating. 2. Visiting the dentist to prevent rotten of teeth. 3. Prevent damage of teeth. Q / Teeth implant is a rare process. Why? A / Because it is economically expensive and takes long time. Q / Compare (or define) the deciduous (milk or temporal) teeth and permanent teeth? Deciduous (milk) or Temporal teeth Permanent teeth 1. They begin to appear after sixth 1. They begin to appear after the month and completed after first year seventh year. It is completed after the then they begin to fall after sixth – puberty and the last teeth may delay seventh year. appearing. 2. Their number is 20 teeth. 2. Their number is 32 teeth. 2. Vertebral column Q / There are cartilaginous discs between two vertebrae in vertebral column. Why? A/ Because these discs enable the vertebral column to bend to different sides and facilitates the movement of vertebrae and prevent the friction of vertebrae. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ توجد أقراص غضروفية بين الفقرتين في العمود الفقري‬/‫س‬ ‫ السماح بحركة الفقرات ومنع‬.‫ ألن هذه األقراص تسمح للعمود الفقري باإلنحناء إلى مختلف اإلتجاهات‬/‫ج‬.‫إحتكاك الفقرات‬ Q / What are the parts of vertebra? 1. Centrum: is a disc-like flat portion tend to the front part according to their position in the vertebral column. 2. Vertebral arch: is located to the backside of the Centrum. 3. Processes: There are two types of processes in vertebrae spinous process and transverse processes. Vertebral foramen: it is a hole that found between vertebral arch and centrum in vertebral column..‫ هو فراغ يقع بين القوس الشوكي وجسم الفقرة في العمود الفقري‬: ‫الفراغ الشوكي‬ Vertebral canal: It is a tube that formed from vertebral rings. Spinal cord passes through it..‫ يمر من خاللها الحبل الشوكي‬.‫ هي انبوبة تتكون من حلقات الفقرة‬: ‫القناة الشوكية‬ Q/ What is the function (importance) of spinous process? A/ It connects vertebra with muscles. Q / There are two pairs of processes emerging from vertebral arch in the vertebra. Why? A/ To articulate the vertebra one another. Q / List the regions of vertebral column. 1. Cervical region: (7 vertebrae) 2. Thoracic region: (12 vertebrae) 3. Lumbar region: (5 vertebrae) 4. Sacral region: (5 vertebrae): constitute a single bone called sacrum. 5. Coccygeal region: (4 vertebrae): make a single bone called coccyx. 3. Thoracic cage: consists of ribs and sternum. 1. Ribs (12 pairs) a. True ribs (7 pairs) are directly connected with the sternum by small cartilaginous pieces. b. False ribs (3 pairs) are not connected to the sternum directly. c. Free ribs (2 pairs) are not joined to anything. Q / Cartilaginous pieces are connected in the front side of the ribs. Why? A / Because they are important in the process of respiration by facilitate the movement of the thoracic cage. 2. Sternum: It is a long structure which consists of three cohesive bones and it is found in the front of the chest. Its lower side is pointed. ‫ يكون‬.‫ هو تركيب طويل يتكون من ثالث عظام متصلة ويكون موجود في مقدمة الصدر‬: ‫ عظم القص‬.2.‫جانبها السفلي مدبب‬ B. Appendicular skeleton Pectoral girdle and upper limbs Pectoral girdle consists of two bones: a. Scapula: is a triangle-like bone. Its back surface forms a long process which extends to backside but the front surface is soft and concave. It’s located in the backside of the body outside the ribs and jointed the muscles of the shoulder. ‫ سطحه الخلفي يكون نتوء طويل يمتد إلى الخلف بينما سطحه األمامي‬.‫ هو عظم مثلث الشكل‬:‫ عظم الكتف‬.‫أ‬.‫يكون أملس ومقعر‬ b. Clavicle: is a thin arch-like bone and its position in the body can be felt since it extends between the scapula and the top of sternum. ‫ هو عظم نحي ف يشبه القوس ويمكن تحسس موقعه في الجسم حيث أنه يمتد بين عظم الكتف‬:‫ عظم الترقوة‬.‫ب‬.‫وأعلى عظم القص‬ Glenoid cavity: a cavity which is formed from the meeting of the bones of scapula and clavicle..‫ تجويف يتكون من التقاء عظمي الكتف والترقوة‬:‫التجويف األروح‬ Upper limbs a. Humerus b. Forearm: consists of two bone; Ulna and Radius. c. Hand: consists of 27 bones: 1. Carpal bones or wrist (8 bones) 2. Metacarpal bones (palm) (5 bones) 3. Phalanges (14 bones): each finger contains three phalanges except the thumb, it contains two phalanges. Pelvic girdle and lower limbs Pelvic girdle Consists of three bones are ilium, ischium and pubis. Q / What are the differences (compare) between male and female pelvis? 1. Bones of pubis in female are lighter than in male. 2. Pelvis is wider in female to facilitate the pregnancy period. 3. Pelvis in female is less deep than in male. Q / Pelvis in female is wider than in male. Why? A / To facilitate the pregnancy period. Lower limbs a. Femur: b. Leg: made up of two bones tibia and fibula. Q / Fibula does not turn around tibia as the radius turns around the ulna. Why? A / Because fibula is thinner than the tibia and the two ends of fibula are connected to tibia. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ الشظية ال تلتف حول القصبة مثل الكعبرة التي تلتف حول الزند‬/‫س‬.‫ ألن الشظية انحف من القصبة ونهايتي الشظية تتصالن بالقصبة‬/‫ج‬ Patella: it is a flattened small bone located in front of the knee joint. c. Foot: made up of 26 bones: 1. Ankle (tarsal) (7 bones) 2. Metatarsals (5 bones) 3. Toes (14 bones) Q / The big Toe does not move easily like the thumb. Why? A / Because the function of foot is walking. Fracture: the division of bone into two parts or more. It happens as a result of a strong sudden contraction of muscles or when the bone is exposed to a direct external shock or bone decaying because of a disease like cancer. ‫ يحدث كنتيجة تقلص مفاجيء قوي في العضالت او عندما‬.‫ هو إنقسام العظم إلى جزأين أو أكثر‬:‫الكسر‬.‫يتعرض العظم لصدمة خارجية مباشرة او أن العظم يتنخر بسبب مرض مثل السرطان‬ Q / What does the factors that rapidity of treating the fracture depends on? A / 1. Fracture type. 2. The age of the person. 3. Nutrition. 4. Treatment method. Dis-articulation: is the separation of two bones at their joint, either naturally by way of injury or by a surgical operation. It’s different from fracture because in dis- articulation the bone is remain healthy but the fibres which connect two bones are damaged..‫ إما طبيعيا عن طريق إصابة أو عن طريق عملية جراحية‬،‫ هو إنفصال عظمتين عن مفصلهما‬:‫خلع العظام‬.‫يكون مختلف عن الكسر ألنه في الخلع يبقى العظم سليم لكن تتضرر األوتار التي تربط عظمين‬ Ligaments: They are strong and flexible fibrous bands which connect bones one another and protect the joints from dis-articulation..‫ هي عبارة عن أشرطة ليفية وقوية تربط العظام مع بعضها وتحمي المفاصل من خلع العظام‬:‫األربطة‬ Tendons: They are non-flexible fibrous cords which connect muscles with bones..‫ هي عبارة عن حبال ليفية غير مرنة تربط العضالت بالعظام‬:‫األوتار‬ Cartilages: They are white colored, transparent and strong structures. They can bend without breaking. They cover the heads of bone. ‫ تغطي رأس‬.‫ قابل لإلنثناء دون إن تنكسر‬.‫ شفافة وقوية‬،‫ هي عبارة عن تراكيب بيضاء اللون‬:‫الغضاريف‬.‫العظم‬ Joints: The meeting points of the bones in the body. Is the connection place of two bones..‫ هي مكان اتصال عظمين‬.‫ نقاط إلتقاء العظام في الجسم‬:‫المفاصل‬ Q / What are the types of joints with examples? 1. Ball and socket: Example the joint of the shoulder and hip. ‫كرة وتجويف‬ 2. Hinge: Example the elbow. ‫مفاصل متحركة‬ 3. Cylindrical: Example the junction of the atlas vertebra with the occipital bone. 4. Immovable joints: all cranial and facial bones. Q / List the specialties of human skeleton. 1. The balances of the skull over the vertebral column.To make the head high, so human can see far objects. 2. The vertebral column is delicate at the neck region and wide at sacral region. To help human in bearing the heavy head and the upper limbs. 3. Width of pelvis in human. To facilitates the balance of the trunk on the lower limbs. 4. The lower limbs are longer than the upper ones. To help human in walking with wide steps. 5. Presence of bending at the hollow of the foot. To help human in walking in a comfortable way, jumping and running easily. Rickets: it’s a disease that can be seen in children between 1-2 years because of deficiency of vitamin D and not exposing to sunlight. Q / What are the Symptoms of Rickets? 1. Retardation in teeth grow, waking and ossification of cranial bones. Also curved legs. 2. Patient becomes nervous and cries much more than the other children. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Rickets? 1. Visiting the physician and taking necessary drugs. 2. Exposing child to the enough sunlight. Q / How can Rickets be Prevented? 1. Mother must breast feeding the child carefully and supporting the nutrition with enough milk. 2. Exposing the child to sunlight enough especially in winter. Ch.3 / Muscular System (10 M.) * The number of muscles in human body is 600 muscles. Voluntary muscles: The muscles that we can controlled them. Such as skeletal muscles. Involuntary muscles: The muscles that we can not controlled them. Such as smooth muscles and cardiac muscles. Q / Compare between skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles? Skeletal muscles Smooth muscles Cardiac muscles 1. Voluntary muscles. 1. Involuntary muscles. 1. Involuntary muscles. 2. Striated muscles. 2. Non – striated 2. Striated muscles. muscles. 3. Connected with the 3. Found in the walls of 3. Found in the wall bony skeleton. the internal organs like of the heart. the muscular tissue of the bladder, intestines, stomach and uterus. 4. Consist of 4. Consist of spindle 4. Consist of striped, elongated cells. shaped cells. short and branched cells. 5. Each cell contains 5. Each cell contains 5. Each cell contains more than one only on nucleus. only one nucleus. nucleus. 6. The nucleus is 6. The nucleus is located 6. The nucleus is located located in the in the center of cell. in the center of cell. peripheral of cell. 7. Don’t have 7. Don’t have 7. Have intercalated intercalated disc. intercalated disc. disc. Q / The cardiac muscles and the skeletal muscles are called as striated muscles. Why? A / Because Each cell (fiber) contains bright and dark sections. This structure gives the cell striated form when it is examined under the microscope. Q / The smooth muscles called involuntary muscles. Why? A / Because we have no control on their movements. Q / What is the location of: 1. Biceps muscle → It is located in the front of the humerus. 2. Triceps muscle → It is located behind the humerus. 3. Deltoid muscle → surrounds the shoulder. 4. Round muscle → lie obliquely on the neck. Antagonistic: When a muscle contracts, the other relaxes, like the biceps muscle is a contractor while the triceps muscle is a relaxer. The functions of these two muscles are antagonist. ‫ مثل العضلة الثنائية المتقلصة بينما العضلة الثالثية‬,‫ هو انه عندما تتقلص عضلة تسترخي األخرى‬:‫التضاد‬.‫ وظيفة هاتان العضلتان هي التضاد‬.‫فهي منبسطة‬ * Quadriceps muscle contraction Makes the leg straightens in the same line of thigh. Muscle fatigue: It is a weakness in the muscle’s ability to contraction and relaxation. It is the state when the muscles can not work continuously without stopping, only for a limited period. ‫ هي الحالة عندما العضلة تكون غير‬.‫ هو ضعف في قابلية العضلة على التقلص واإلنبساط‬:‫اإلعياء العضلي‬.‫ فقط لفترة محدودة‬،‫قادرة على العمل بصورة مستمرة وبدون توقف‬ Q / What are the causes of the muscles fatigue? A / 1. Nutritional deficiency in the muscles. 2. Accumulation of toxic waste – materials in the muscles. 3. Weakness of nervous system. 4. Hunger, insomnia and poor ventilation. Q / How to prevent the muscle fatigue? 1. You should stop working. 2. Provide enough time for relaxation. Ch.4 / Digestive System (20 -25 M.) Mouth: It is a cavity surrounded by muscles of cheek, muscles of lips and bony roof covered with mucosa. It ends with pharynx. It is composed of tongue, associated salivary glands and teeth..‫ ينتهي بالبلعوم‬.‫ عضالت الشفتين وسقف عظمي محاط بالمخاط‬،‫ هو تجويف محاط بعضالت الفك‬:‫الفم‬.‫ الغدد اللعابية الملحقة واألسنان‬،‫يتكون من اللسان‬ Tongue: a group of muscles with nerve fibers. It helps speech, detects the taste, helps chewing and swallowing of food. ‫ يساعد على مضغ‬،‫ تحديد الطعم‬،‫ يساعد على النطق‬.‫ مجموعة من العضالت تحتوي ألياف عصبية‬:‫اللسان‬.‫وبلع الطعام‬ Q / List the types of teeth with their functions. 1. Incisors: There are four incisors in each jaw. They are located in the middle of the jaw in the front part of the mouth. The function is to cut the food. 2. Canines: There is a pair of canines in upper and lower jaw on the each side of the incisors. They are long and they have pointed ends. The function is to tear the food. 3. Molar: There are ten molar in each jaw. The function is to chew and grind the food. Pharynx: It is a muscular cavity lined with mucosa. It is extended from the mouth to the larynx from the anterior and to the oesophagus from the posterior. And it is separated from the larynx by epiglottis..‫ يمتد من الفم إلى الحنجرة من األمام وإلى المريء من الخلف‬.‫ هو تجويف عضلي محاط بالمخاط‬:‫البلعوم‬.‫ويُفصل عن الحنجرة بواسطة لسان المزمار‬ Epiglottis: it is a soft cartilaginous tissue separate pharynx from the larynx. It prevents the entering of food molecules into the trachea. ‫ يمنع دخول جزيئات الطعام إلى‬.‫ هو نسيج غضروفي مرن يفصل البلعوم عن الحنجرة‬:‫لسان المزمار‬.‫القصبات الهوائية‬ Tonsils: they are two lymphatic glands located on both sides of the pharynx. Oesophagus: It is a muscular tube which is extended from pharynx to stomach through the neck, chest and diaphragm and then, it enters the stomach through the cardiac sphincter. It is about 25cm long. It is covered with mucosa. ‫ الصدر والحجاب الحاجز من ثم‬،‫ عبارة عن أنبوب عضلي يمتد من البلعوم إلى المعدة عبر الرقبة‬:‫المريء‬.‫ يحاط بغشاء مخاطي‬.‫ سم‬25 ‫ طوله تقريبا‬.‫يدخل المعدة عبر الفتحة الفؤادية‬ Peristalsis: it is wave – like motion occurs when the muscles of digestive tracts contract and relax then the liquid and food molecules are pushed downward to stomach. ‫ هي حركة تشبه الموجة تحدث عندما تتقلص عضالت القنوات الهضمية وتنبسط من ثم‬:‫الحركة التموجية‬.‫جزيئات الطعام والسوائل تدفع لألسفل إلى المعدة‬ Stomach: it is a muscular organ which consists of many muscular layers lined with crisped mucosa. It is located beneath the diaphragm in the left anterior region of the abdomen. It is covered with a thin membrane called periton from outside. And it has two openings the cardiac sphincter and pyloric sphincter. ‫ تقع تحت‬. ‫ هي عبارة عن عضو عضلي تحتوي على عدة طبقات عضلية محاطة بغشاء مخاطي‬:‫المعدة‬ ‫ ولها‬.‫ تحاط بغشاء رقيق من الخارج يدعى بالبريتون‬.‫الحجاب الحاجز في الجزء األمامي األيسر من البطن‬.‫فتحتين الفتحة الفؤادية والفتحة البوابية‬ Cardiac sphincter: it is the upper opening of stomach, it prevents the food and gastric juices from returning to esophagus..‫ تمنع الطعام والعصارات الهاضمة من العودة إلى المريء‬،‫ هي الفتحة العليا للمعدة‬:‫الفتحة الفؤادية‬ Pyloric sphincter: it is the lower opening of stomach, it controls the movement of food into the duodenum and prevents the duodenum contents from returning to stomach. ‫ تسيطر على حركة الطعام إلى اإلثنى عشري وتمنع محتويات اإلثنى‬،‫ هي الفتحة السفلى للمعدة‬:‫الفتحة البوابية‬.‫عشري من العودة للمعدة‬ Q / What are the functions of stomach? 1. Mix the food by peristalsis 2. Secretion of pepsin enzyme to digest the proteins. 3. Secretion of HCL (0.2%) to make stomach acidic. 4. Absorb water, some minerals and vitamins. Pepsin: it is an enzyme which is secreted by stomach to digest the proteins. Small intestines: It is a long and coiled muscular tube which lies in the middle of the abdominal cavity. It is about 6-7 meters and it is attached to a special membrane called omentum. It is covered by mucosa from inside and covered by periton from outside. ‫ طوله حوالي‬.‫ هي عبارة عن أنبوب عضلي طويل وملتف يوجد في منتصف تجويف البطن‬:‫األمعاء الدقيقة‬ ‫ يحاط بغشاء مخاطي من الداخل ويحاط بالبريتون من‬.‫ متر ويتصل بغشاء خاص يدعى بالمساريق‬7-6.‫الخارج‬ Villi: are finger – like projections contain blood and lymph vessels. They resist the food movement to complete its digestion and increase the surface area for absorption. ‫ تقوم بمقاومة حركة الطعام إلكمال هضمه‬.‫ هي بروزات تشبه اإلصبع تحتوي أوعية دموية ولمفاوية‬:‫الزغابات‬.‫وتزيد المساحة السطحية لإلمتصاص‬ a. Duodenum: it is the first part of the small intestines, it is about 30 cm. duodenum is a C shaped and surrounds the pancreas. b. Jejunum: the section of the small intestines situated between the duodenum and the ileum, the main function is the absorption of nutrients from digested food. c. Ileum: is the biggest and the final part of the small intestines. Q / Jejunum is called by this name. Why? A / Because this part of the intestine is generally empty after death. Q / What are the functions of small intestines. 1. Neutralizing the food coming from the stomach to small intestines. 2. Completing the digestion of the food which consists of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. 3. Absorbing the nutrients. 4. Pushing the undigested materials into large intestine by its peristalsis. Large intestines: It is the final part of the digestive tract, its length is about 1.5 meters. Its structure looks like small intestine but it does not have villi in the inner surface. ‫ تركيبها يشبه األمعاء الدقيقة لكنها ال‬.‫ متر‬1.5 ‫ طولها‬،‫ هي آخر جزء من القناة الهضمية‬:‫األمعاء الغليظة‬.‫تحتوي على زغابات في سطحها الداخلي‬ Parts of large intestines 1. Appendix (Cecum): it is a small finger – like closed tube located in the right- hand lower part of the abdominal cavity. When it is inflamed, the person suffers from a very hard intestinal colic with coma and vomiting. ‫ هو أنبوب مغلق صغير يشبه اإلصبع يوجد في الجهة اليمنى في الجزء السفلي‬:)‫الزائدة الدودية (األعور‬.‫ يعاني الشخص من مغص معوي حاد مع غيبوبة وتقيؤ‬،‫ عند إلتهابه‬.‫للبطن‬ 2. Colon: it is the second part of the large intestines. It is divided into three parts according to its location inside the abdominal cavity. Q / What are the parts of Colon? What is the location of: a. Ascending colon: in the right – hand of the abdominal cavity. b. Transverse colon: from the right to the left of the abdominal cavity. c. Descending colon: in the left part of the abdominal cavity. 3. Rectum: it starts after descending colon and it is a straight tube, which is located behind the bladder. 4. Anus: rectum continues with a short duct which ends at anus opening. Q / What are the functions of large intestines? 1. Absorbing the water. 2. Storing the undigested food materials for a limited time. 3. Pushing the waste materials to outside of the body from the anus. 4. There is no digestion process in the large intestine. Periton: it is a thin membrane which covered stomach, small intestine and large intestine from outside. Q / Compare between small intestines and large intestines. Small intestines Large intestines 1. Longer than large intestines 1. Shorter than small intestines (6-7 meters length). (1.5 meters length). 2. Their internal surface has villi. 2. Their internal surface don’t have villi. 3. Their parts are duodenum, 3. Their parts are appendix jejunum and ileum. (caecum), colon, rectum and anus. 4. Completing the digestion of 4. There is no digestion in large food. intestines. Associated glands of digestive system 1. Salivary glands There are three pairs of salivary glands located on the both sides of the face. They are called parotid glands, submandibular glands and sub-lingual glands. Saliva: it is a concentrated liquid secreted by salivary glands, which contains ptyalin which acts on starch to digest it in the mouth and to convert it into disaccharides. ‫ يحتوي على التايلين الذي يؤثر على النشاء ليهضمه في الفم‬،‫ هو سائل مركز تفرزه الغدد اللعابية‬:‫اللعاب‬.‫ويحوله إلى سكريات ثنائية‬ Ptyalin: it is an enzyme which is secreted by salivary glands, which acts on starch to digest it in the mouth and to convert it into disaccharides. Q / The taste of starchy food become sweet after chewing it. Why? A / Because ptyalin acts on starch to digest it in the mouth and to convert it into disaccharides. 2. Liver: It is a dark red spongy –like organ. It is covered by periton membrane and is located beneath the diaphragm in the right side of the abdomen, next to stomach. Liver cells produce bile. Liver consists of two lobes (left and right lobes). ‫ يحاط بغشاء البريتون‬.‫ هو عضو يشبه اإلسفنجة ذو لون أحمر غامق‬:‫الكبد‬ ‫ تنتج‬.‫ بجانب المعدة‬،‫ويوجد تحت الحجاب الحاجز في الجهة اليمنى من البطن‬.)‫ يحتوي الكبد على فصين (الفص األيمن واأليسر‬.‫خاليا الكبد المادة الصفراء‬ Gall bladder: it is a small sac behind the right lobe of liver. It stores bile. And it is connected to liver by a duct. ‫ يتصل بالكبد بواسطة‬.‫ يخزن المادة الصفراء‬،‫ هو كيس صغير أسفل الجهة اليمنى من الكبد‬:‫كيس الصفراء‬.‫قناة‬ Bile: is a concentrated, dark-green near to yellowish liquid and its taste is bitter. It helps the digestion of fatty materials by breaking them into small pieces. ‫ يساعد على هضم المواد‬.‫ هو سائل مركز لونه أخضر غامق مائل لإلصفرار وطعمه مر‬:‫المادة الصفراء‬.‫الدهنية عن طريق تكسيرها إلى قطع صغيرة‬ Q / What are the functions of liver? 1. Secreting bile. 2. Storing the excess amount of carbohydrates as glycogen. 3. Converting the excess amount of proteins into urea. 4. Manufacturing the heparin enzyme which prevents the blood clotting in blood vessels. 5. Manufacturing the Prothrombin and fibrinogen. Which are important for blood clotting. Heparin: it is an enzyme secreted by liver. It prevents the blood clotting in blood vessels. 3. Pancreas: it is a leaf – like organ located between the stomach and duodenum and connected with them by periton. Digestion: is the breaking down of big food molecules into smaller units to make them ready for absorption. After absorption these subunits are transported to all cells to be used. ‫ بعد‬.‫ هو عملية تكسير جزيئات الطعام الكبيرة إلى وحدات صغيرة لجعلها جاهزة لإلمتصاص‬:‫الهضم‬.‫إمتصاصها تنقل هذه الوحدات الوحدات الصغيرة إلى كل الخاليا لغرض إستخدامها‬ Q / Explain digestion in mouth. 1. Food molecules are cut and grind into smaller pieces by chewing. 2. With the help of the tongue, the food is mixed with saliva which moistens and softens the food. 3. The saliva contains ptyalin enzyme which acts on the starchy materials and digests them into smaller sugars. 4. By the contractions and relaxations of tongue and pharynx muscles, the food molecules are push into oesophagus and then into the stomach. Q / Explain digestion in stomach. 1. The food is mixed with gastric juice by the peristalsis. 2. Gastric juice is secreted by gastric glands and contains HCl. 3. The pepsin enzyme which converts the proteins into smaller units. 4. The food molecules form a concentrated mass. This mass is called as chyme. 5. Chyme is pushed through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. Chyme: is a concentrated mass of food molecules mix with gastric juice in the stomach, is pushed through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. ‫ يدفع عبر الفتحة‬،‫ هو كتلة مركزة من جزيئات الطعام يمتزج مع العصارات الهاضمة في المعدة‬:‫الكيموس‬.‫البوابية إلى اإلثنى عشري‬ Q / Explain the digestion (absorption) process in small intestines. 1. The bile is secreted on chyme. 2. Other pancreas enzymes are secreted to digest proteins and carbohydrates. 3. Food converted to thick white mass called chyle, which contains simple absorbed molecules. Chyle: is a thick white mass which found in the small intestines, this mass contain smaller units ready for absorption by the walls of small intestines later. ‫ هذه الكتلة تحتوي وحدات صغيرة جاهزة‬،‫ هو كتلة بيضاء سميكة توجد في األمعاء الدقيقة‬:‫الكيلوس‬.‫لإلمتصاص الحقا بواسطة جدران األمعاء الدقيقة‬ 1. Cholera: It is a contagious disease which is spread quickly and causes epidemic. Cholera microbes which are found in food and drinks. Q / What are the causes of cholera? A / A special bacteria called vibrio cholera. Q / What are the symptoms of cholera? 1. Strong diarrhea and vomiting. 2. The faeces of patient look like the rice water. 3. Loss of a great amount of body liquids and decreasing of body temperature. 4. The skin of patient become crisped. Q / The skin of patient with cholera is crisped. Why? A /Because the diarrhea causes the loss of a great amount of body liquid. Q / Acute inflammation of intestine and food poisoning are distinguished from cholera. Why? A / Because they are causing very strong intestinal colic in addition to diarrhea and vomiting. Q / What is the treatment of cholera. 1. The patient is isolated from residential places. 2. Liquids must be given to the patient. 3. Special medicines must be given to the patient. Q / The patient with cholera is isolated from residential places. Why? A / To prevent the infection and spreading of this disease. Q / Liquids must be given to the patient with cholera. Why? A / To replace the liquids which are lost from the body. Q / Explain the prevention of cholera. 1. Isolating the patients in hospitals away from residential area and the visiting must be prevented. 2. Confining the people who are in contact with the patient. 3. Supervising the drinking water and its sterilization. 4. Sterilization of wastes of patient with Lysol or phenol or chloride. 5. Using insecticides for controlling the insects' transporting microbes to prevent contamination. 6. Sterilizing the fruits and vegetables with chloride solution before eating. 7. Informing the people about the hygiene. 2. Typhoid fever Q / What are the causes of typhoid fever? A / It is caused by a special bacterium called salmonella typhi. Q / What are the symptoms of typhoid fever? 1- Increasing body temperature and strong headache. 2- Inappetence and tiredness seen. Q / What is the treatment of typhoid fever? 1. Visiting the doctor and starting the necessary treatment. 2. Taking large amount of sterilized water and relaxation. 3. Balance the body temperature. Q / How can typhoid fever be prevented? 1. Don't use the patient's tools. 2. Killing the insects by insecticides. 3. Washing hands with soap after defecation process. 4. Keep the environment clean and taking healthy food. 5. Sterilizing the fruits and vegetables before eating. Q / We must kill the insects by insecticides. Why? A / Because they are carrier for diseases. 3. Amoebic dysentery Q / What are the causes of amoebic dysentery? A / Amoeba Q / What are the symptoms of amoebic dysentery? 1. The patients feel intestinal colic and light diarrhea, the feces of patients become soft or watery and smell bad. 2. The patient feels emaciation and the body temperature increases slightly. Q / What is the treatment of amoebic dysentery? 1. Resting in the bed and supplying the light diet. 2. The patient is treated with drugs. 3. Visiting the doctor. Q / How can amoebic dysentery be prevented? 1. Washing the fruits and vegetables before eating. 2. Sterilization of water. 4. Obesity Q / What are the causes of obesity? 1. The food taken into body is more than the body requirement. 2. Excess amount of food is stored in the body, especially Fats, carbohydrates such as starch and sugars. Q / What are the symptoms of obesity? Or What is the obesity lead to? 1. Increasing of the body weight and thickening the skin layers. 2. Increasing the blood pressure, and causes diabetes and heart diseases. Q / How can obesity be treated? 1. Regulating the diets. 2. Reducing the fats and carbohydrates in the diets. 3. Performing the physical exercises regularly. Q / How can obesity be prevented? 1. Reducing the food intake. 2. Performing suitable sports. Ch.5 / Circulatory system (25 – 30 M.) Q / What are the functions of circulatory system? 1. Transportation of oxygen, absorbed nutrients and hormones to the body tissues. 2. Transportation of waste products to the excretory organs. 3. Distribution of heat in the body. Blood: It is a red colored, viscous liquid. It is composed of plasma and blood cells. The blood forms about 7% of total body weight and its volume is 4-6 litres in an adults. ‫ من وزن الجسم‬%7 ‫ يشكل الدم حوالي‬.‫ يتكون من البالزما وخاليا الدم‬.‫ هو سائل لزج أحمر اللون‬:‫الدم‬.‫ لترات في البالغين‬6-4 ‫الكلي وحجمه هو‬ Plasma: It is a clear yellow liquid, which makes up 55% of the total volume of blood. It consists of 90% water and 10% dissolved materials such as absorbed nutrients, salts, antibodies, hormones and some waste materials. ‫ مواد‬%10 ‫ ماء و‬%90 ‫ يتكون من‬.‫ من حجم الدم الكلي‬%55 ‫ يشكل‬،‫ هو سائل اصفر شفاف‬:‫ البالزما‬.1.‫ الهرمونات وبعض الفضالت‬،‫ األجسام المضادة‬،‫ األمالح‬،‫ذائبة مثل الغذاء الممتص‬ Q / What is the function of red blood cells? A / They transport O2 and CO2 in the body. Q / Red blood cells transport O2 and CO2 in the body. Why? A / Because they have haemoglobin. Hemoglobin: it is a red pigment contains iron, found in red blood cells. It carries O2 and CO2 in the body. ‫ تحمل األوكسجين وثاني‬.‫ هي صبغة حمراء تحتوي على الحديد توجد في خاليا الدم الحمراء‬:‫الهيموغلوبين‬.‫أوكسيد الكربون في الجسم‬ * Red blood cells are formed in the spleen and liver in children before birth while they are formed in the bone marrow after birth. Q / White blood cells are colorless cells. Why? A / Because they lack hemoglobin. Q / The number of white blood cells increases in cases of inflammation. Why? A / Because they defence body by attacking invading microorganisms or by producing antibodies. Q / What is the function of white blood cells? A / Defence body by attacking invading microorganisms or by producing antibodies. Q / What are the groups of white blood cells? 1. Granulocytes: they have granular cytoplasm and lobulated nuclei. They are formed in bone marrow. 2. Agranulocytes: they have non – granular cytoplasm and unlobulated nuclei. They are formed in lymph nodes. Q / Compare between Red blood cells (RBCs) and White blood cells (WBCs). Red blood cells (RBCs) White blood cells (WBCs) 1. Red in color. 1. Colorless. 2. Have hemoglobin. 2. Lack hemoglobin. 3. They are disc shaped cells and 3. They are inconstant (amoeboid) thinner in center. shaped cells. 4. Lack nucleus. 4. Have nucleus. 5. Their function is transport O2 5. Their function is defence body and CO2 in the body. against pathogens. 6. Their diameter is 8 micron. 6. Their diameter is 6-15 micron. 7. Their number in males is 5.2 7. Their number in males is 8000 million and in females is 5 million. and in females is 6000. Blood platelets: they are very tiny discs or oval shaped cells have no nucleus. Its diameter is about 2 micron. There are about 250000 platelets in 1mm3 of blood. They are originated from platelet-producing cells found in the bone marrow. They provide blood clotting after an injury or a bleeding..‫ مايكرون‬2 ‫ قطرها‬.‫ هي خاليا صغيرة قرصية أو بيضوية الشكل ال تحتوي على نواة‬:‫الصفيحات الدموية‬ ‫ تنشأ من الخاليا المنتجة للصفائح الموجودة في نخاع‬.‫ صفيحة‬25000 ‫توجد في المليمتر الواحد من الدم بحدود‬.‫ تساهم في تخثر الدم بعد الجرح أو النزيف‬.‫العظم‬ Heart: is a conical muscular organ found in the chest cavity between the lungs, slightly to the left of center. From outside, it is surrounded by a double membrane called the pericardium. There is a fluid between the two membranes. The heart consists of two sides, right and left. These sides are separated by a muscular wall and each side is divided into two chambers (atrium and ventricle). So the heart is composed of four chambers; 2 atria and 2 ventricles. ‫ من الخارج‬.‫ مائل قليال نحو اليسار‬،‫ هو عضو عضلي مخروطي يوجد في تجويف الصدر بين الرئتين‬:‫القلب‬ ‫ أيمن‬,‫ يتكون القلب من جانبين‬.‫ يوجد بين الغشائين سائل‬.‫فإنه يحاط بغشاء مزدوج يعرف بشغاف القلب‬ ‫ فيتكون‬.)‫ يُفصل بين هذين الجانبين بواسطة جدار عضلي وكل جانب يقسم إلى ردهتين (أذين وبطين‬.‫وأيسر‬.‫القلب من أربع ردهات؛ أذينين وبطينين‬ Q / The oxygenated blood does not mix with de- oxygenated blood. Why? A / Because the heart consists of two sides right and left. These sides are separated by muscular wall. Atria: are small chambers found at the top of the heart and they have thin walls. Ventricles: are big chambers found at the lower part of the heart and they have thick walls. Tricuspid valve: it is found in the right side of the heart. It separates right atrium and right ventricle. It has three cusps. It controls the flow of blood from atrium to ventricle. ‫ يتكون من ثالث‬.‫ يفصل األذين األيمن عن البطين األيمن‬.‫ يوجد في الجانب األيسر من القلب‬:‫الصمام الثالثي‬.‫ يتحكم بجريان الدم من األذين إلى البطين‬.‫صفائح‬ Mitral valve (bicuspid): it is found in the left side of the heart, it separates left atrium and right ventricle. It has only two cusps. It prevents the back flow of blood..‫ يفصل األذين األيسر عن البطين األيمن‬،‫ يوجد في الجانب األيسر من القلب‬:)‫الصمام التاجي (الثنائي‬.‫ يمنع رجوع جريان الدم‬.‫يحتوي على صفيحتين فقط‬ Semi lunar valves: are two valves. One of them is found between the left ventricle and aorta (aortic valve). The other is found between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery (pulmonary valve). They prevent the back flow of blood into the right and left ventricle from the aorta and the pulmonary artery..)‫ أحدهما يوجد بين البطين واألذين األيسر (الصمام األبهر‬.‫ هي صمامين‬:‫ الصمامات النصف هاللية‬.3 ‫ تمنع عودة الدم إلى البطين األيمن‬.)‫اآلخر يوجد بين البطين األيمن والشريان الرئوي (الصمام الرئوي‬.‫واأليسر من الشريان األبهر والرئوي‬ Q / What is the function of semi lunar valves? A / They prevent the back flow of blood into the right and left ventricle from the aorta and the pulmonary artery. Heart beats: the contractions and relaxations of the heart. The number of heartbeat in a healthy person is about 72 beats in a minute in resting. ‫ دقة في الدقيقة عند‬72 ‫ عدد دقات القلب في الشخص السليم‬.‫ هي تقلص وانبساط العضلة‬:‫نبضات القلب‬.‫الراحة‬ Q / Compare between Arteries and Veins. Arteries Veins 1. They transport blood from heart 1. They transport blood from body to body organs. tissues to heart. 2. The color of blood in arteries is 2. The color of de- oxygenated bright red, because they transport blood in veins is bluish-red. oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. 3. They have thick walls. 3. They have thin walls. 4. They are located deeply in the 4. They are closer to the body body. surface. 5. Blood flow is fast, so cutting of 5. Blood flow is slow, so when it any artery causes loss of great cuts, the bleeding can be stopped amount of blood and stopping this easily. bleeding is very difficult. Blood capillaries: they are microscopic vessels between the ends of arteries and the beginning of veins. Their walls are very thin and they have no muscles. Also their walls are covered by single layered epithelial cells. The blood flowing is slow and their thin walls make the material exchange between blood and body cells and white blood cells can move through the walls of capillaries easily. ‫ جدرانها رقيقة جدا وال‬.‫ هي أوعية مجهرية بين نهاية الشرايين وبداية األوردة‬:‫األوعية الدموية الشعرية‬ ‫ جريان الدم بطيء وجدرانها الرقيقة تجعل‬.‫ جدرانها محاطة بخاليا ط الئية أحادية الطبقة‬.‫تمتلك عضالت‬ ‫تبادل المواد بين الدم وخاليا الجسم وتستطيع خاليا الدم البيضاء من الحركة عبر جدران الشعيرات الدموية‬.‫بسهولة‬ Q / List the arteries which connected with heart. 1. Pulmonary artery: it transports the de –oxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs, it is branched into two parts and each branch goes to each lung. 2. Aorta: it is the largest blood vessel and the most branched vessel. It extends from left ventricle. It transports oxygenated blood from heart to all body tissues (except the lungs). 3. Cardiac coronary arteries: pair of small arteries branch from the aorta. They nourish the heart muscle. Q / List the veins which connected with heart. 1. Superior vena cava: it collects de- oxygenated blood from the body parts located above the diaphragm and transports it to right atrium. 2. Inferior vena cava: it collects de- oxygenated blood from the body parts located below the diaphragm and transports it to right atrium. 3. Pulmonary veins: they are four veins. They collect oxygenated blood from lungs and transport it into left atrium. 4. Cardiac coronary veins: a group of small veins collect the de- oxygenated blood from the heart muscle. These small veins are connected with each other and form a vein which ends at right atrium. ECG (Electrocardiogram): It is a special machine that draws the contraction and relaxation of aria and ventricles. Contains electrical poles which are positioned on chest, arms and legs of the patient. Its importance is to give information about heart activities. Blood Circulations Q / Explain the Systemic circulation (Large blood circulation). 1. It occurs between heart and other body parts. 2. The aim of it is to transport oxygen to all body cells and remove carbon dioxide from these cells. 3. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, arterioles and capillaries. 4. From capillaries, oxygen and food molecules are given to body cells. Carbon dioxide diffuses into blood so blood becomes de- oxygenated. 5. The blood flows from capillaries to veins. These big veins transport the deoxygenated blood to right atrium. Q / Explain the Pulmonary circulation (Small blood circulation). 1. It occurs between heart and lungs. 2. The aim of it is to charge blood with oxygen and remove the carbon dioxide from body. 3. The deoxygenated blood coming from all body cells is carried to right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava. 4. The blood flows from Right ventricle into the pulmonary artery. 5. Pulmonary artery divided into capillaries which surround the gas exchange units called alveoli. 6. Air diffuses from alveoli into the capillaries and carbon dioxide in blood pass into alveoli to be exhaled. 7. In the lungs, blood becomes oxygenated, pulmonary veins transport oxygenated blood to heart again. Q / Explain the Portal circulation. 1. The blood coming from the digestive organs (intestines) which contains absorbed nutrients does not go directly into the heart. 2. Blood goes to the liver by the portal vein which enters the liver. Liver regulates the amount of nutrients in the blood. 3. Hepatic vein which leaves the liver, delivered blood into the inferior vena cava which transports it into the heart. Q / Fill in the blanks: 1. Blood group A accept blood from group A and O 2. Blood group B accept blood from group B and O 3. Blood group AB accept blood from group A, B, AB and O 4. Blood group O accept blood from group O Q / Blood group (O) is called universal donor. Why? A / Because it can give blood to all blood groups. Q / Blood group (AB) is called universal recipient. Why? A / Because it can accept blood from all blood groups. Rh factor (lyzen): it is a protein located on the surfaces of RBCs in blood. If the surfaces of the RBCS contain Rh factor, this blood is called as Rh (+). If there is no Rh factor on the surface of the RBCs, this blood is called as Rh (-). ‫ إذا احتوت سطوح‬.‫ هو بروتين يقع على سطوح كريات الدم الحمراء في الدم‬:)‫العامل الريسي (الاليزين‬ ‫ إذا لم يكن هنالك عامل ريسي على سطوح‬.(Rh+( ‫ يدعى الدم ب‬،‫كريات الدم الحمراء على عامل ريسي‬.(Rh-) ‫ يدعى الدم ب‬،‫كريات الدم الحمراء‬ Q / Rh factor must be examined before marriage. Why? A / Because If the blood group of mother is Rh (-) while father's is Rh (+), the Rh (+) fetus will be in danger. Because the mother’s body can produce antibodies against the antigens of baby. Blood Clotting: It is the solidification of the blood to stop bleeding to prevent blood loss from an injury. Q / How does blood clotting occur? 1. The blood platelets are broken and release a certain enzyme. 2. This enzyme converts the Prothrombin into Thrombin by means of the calcium ions. 3. Thrombin converts the Fibrinogen into Fibrin. 4. Fibrin collects the RBCs and platelets and forms a solid mass called blood clot closes the injured area. Prothrombin: it is a special protein found in the blood plasma. Fibrinogen: it is a special protein dissolved into the blood plasma. Q / Blood manufacturing is not possible in factories or laboratories. Why? A / Because blood contains living cells. Q / The hospitals store the blood in glass tubes or plastic containers which contain heparin. Why? A / Because heparin prevents the blood clotting during the blood storage. Q / Blood clotting does not occur in blood vessels. Why? A / Because heparin enzyme which prevents the blood clotting in blood vessels. Q / What are the conditions of blood transfusion? 1. The age of person who gives blood mustn't be younger than 17 and older than 55 2. Woman who gives blood must not be pregnant or nursing the child. Q / Sometimes the death occurs when the blood is transferred to a person. Why? A / Because if the blood of donor does not fit the blood of recipient, immune system reacts these non self-proteins in body and form antibodies. Lymph: it is a fluid absorbed by lymphatic vessels, its structure looks like the blood but contains White blood cells instead of Red blood cells. ‫ تركيبه يشبه الدم لكنه يحتوي على كريات الدم‬،‫ هو سائل يمتص بواسطة األوعية اللمفاوية‬:‫اللمف‬.‫البيضاء بدال عن كريات الدم الحمراء‬ Q / Which is responsible of the flowing of lymph in lymphatic vessels in one direction? A / Lymphatic valves. Q / What is the function of the lymphatic vessels? A / Collect the lymph or tissue fluid and waste products from the intercellular space and transport them into the blood. Lymph nodes (lymph glands): they are swellings that contain a great amount of white blood cells. They clear the lymph from bacteria and other harmful materials. ‫ تقوم بتنقية‬.‫ هي إنتفاخات تحتوي على كمية كبيرة من كريات الدم البيضاء‬:)‫العقد اللمفاوية (الغدد اللمفاوية‬.‫اللمف من البكتيريا والمواد الضارة األخرى‬ Q / What is the function of lymph nodes? A / They clear the lymph from bacteria and other harmful materials. Q / Lymph nodes contain a great amount of white blood cells. Why? A / Because they clear the lymph from bacteria and other harmful materials. Lymphatic ducts 1. Right lymphatic duct: it collects the lymph from upper right parts of the body, head, neck, trachea and some parts of the liver and transports it into the right subclavian vein near the heart. 2. Left lymphatic duct (thoracic duct): it is the largest lymphatic duct in the body. It collects the lymph from the other parts of body and transports it to the left subclavian vein. Q / What is the location of lymphatic ducts? A / They are distributed in different parts of the body. Spleen: is the largest organ of the lymphatic system, it is a bright red organ located beneath the stomach, it looks like the lymphatic nodes but it is connected with blood instead of lymph. Q / What is the location of the spleen? A / It’s located beneath the stomach. Q / Spleen stores a great amount of blood. Why? A / Because it is connected with blood instead of lymph. Q / What are the function of the spleen? 1. It produces red blood cells when the bone marrow is not producing them. 2. It breaks down and decomposes old red blood cells, thus iron returns into the blood. 3. It clears the blood from debris inside it. 4. It becomes enlarged when it is infected with some diseases such as malaria and anaemia. Stethoscope: It is an instrument used by doctors to listen to patient’s heart or breathing. Some diseases of the circulatory system 1. Blood pressure: is the force of the blood on the walls of arteries due to contractions of ventricles. *The blood pressure is measured by special apparatus called sphygmomanometer. * The average high blood pressure is between (12-15 mmHg) but the average low blood pressure is between (8-9 mmHg). The other name of high blood pressure is Hypertension. Q / What are the causes of hypertension? 1. Age. 2. Sex. 3. Working and doing sports. 4. Increasing the percentage of fats and salts in the diets. 5. Nervousness, overeat and kidney inflammation. 6. Mood situation. Q / How can blood pressure be prevented? 1. The person must have body and mental rest. 2. Regulate the eating times. 3. Reduce the fat level in the meals. 4. Eat more fruits and vegetables. 2. Heart attack: It is a physiological heart disease. Several heart diseases and irregular heartbeats can cause a strong pain in the chest and sometimes the heart stops completely. This condition causes sudden death. Q / What are the symptoms of heart attack? A / It can cause a strong pain in the chest and sometimes the heart stops completely. Q / How can heart attack be prevented? 1. We must keep ourselves away from the causes such as smoking, drinking alcohol and hard psychical actions. 2. Visiting the physician is important when you feel any pain in the chest. 3. Haemophilia: is a genetic disease. The bleeding does not stop in haemophilic people in normal period and genetic structure of the blood is different. Also breaking the blood platelets is difficult when an injury occurs. This disease is generally seen in males also it can be seen in females but haemophilic females can live until puberty. 4. Anemia: it is the Deficiency of iron and vitamin B12 in the blood. These deficiencies reduce the formation of the hemoglobin. Q / What are the causes of Anemia? A / Deficiency of iron and vitamin B12in the blood. Q / What are the symptoms of Anemia? 1. Pale face and eyes. 2. General weakness. 3. Inappetence and indigestion are seen. Q / What is the treatment of Anemia. 1. The patient is treated by removing the causing factors and consuming diets which are rich in vitamins, protein and iron. 2. The pills which are given to the patient must contain iron compounds. Ch.6 / Respiratory system (10 – 15 M.) Respiration: is a chemical process which produces energy from food inside the living cells. In this process, food is catabolized by oxygen and energy is produced from food. ‫ يتكسر الطعام‬،‫ في هذه العملية‬.‫هي عملية كيمياوية والتي تنتج الطاقة من الطعام داخل الخاليا الحية‬:‫التنفس‬.‫بواسطة األوكسجين وتنتج الطاقة من الطعام‬ Q / Presence of mucous in nasal cavity. Why? A / To moistens the air passing through it. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ وجود المخاط في تجويف األنف‬/‫س‬.‫ لترطيب الهواء المار به‬/‫ج‬ Q / Presence of hairs and mucous membrane in Nasal cavity. Why? A / To prevent the entering of the dust particles and microbes inside the lungs by trapping them. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ وجود شعيرات وطبقة مخاطية في تجويف األنف‬/‫س‬.‫ لمنع دخول جزيئات الغبار والميكروبات لداخل الرئتين عن طريق التقاطها‬/‫ج‬ Q / The mucous membrane of nasal cavity contains blood capillaries. Why? A / To warm the air that goes to lungs. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ الغشاء المخاطي لتجويف األنف يحتوي شعيرات دموية‬/‫س‬.‫ لتدفئة الهواء المار إلى الرئتين‬/‫ج‬ * Pharynx is a common passage between the digestive system and respiratory system..‫* البلعوم هو ممر مشترك بين الجهاز الهضمي والجهاز التنفسي‬ Larynx: It is a cone shaped structure which is lined with mucous membrane and located above the trachea. It consists of nine pieces of cartilages. These cartilages are combined with each other by an elastic membrane. ‫ يتكون من تسع‬،‫ هو تركيب مخروطي الشكل مبطن بغشاء مخاطي ويوجد فوق القصبة الهوائية‬:‫الحنجرة‬.‫ ترتبط هذه الغضاريف مع بعضها البعض بغشاء مطاطي‬،‫قطع من الغضاريف‬ Adam’s apple: it is the most important piece in the larynx. It is a C-shaped cartilage and can be felt in the neck. It consists of two connected pieces that can be seen in the neck. ‫ ويمكن الشعور بها في‬C ‫ هي قطعة غضروفية على شكل حرف‬.‫ هي أهم قطعة في الحنجرة‬:‫تفاحة آدم‬.‫ تتكون من قطعتين متصلتين يمكن رؤيتها في الرقبة‬.‫الرقبة‬ Q / Why the food doses not enter the respiratory pathway during eating? A / Because Epiglottis is a valve which closes the larynx during swallowing, so it prevents the entering of food molecules into trachea ‫ لماذا ال يدخل الطعام إلى المجرى التنفسي عند األكل؟‬/‫س‬ ‫ ألن لسان المزمار عبارة عن صمام يغلق الحنجرة عند البلع فيمنع دخول جزيئات الطعام إلى القصبة‬/‫ج‬.‫الهوائية‬ Vocal cords: is a pair of membranes which are found inside the larynx cavity they are connected with first cartilage at the top and third cartilage at the bottom, during the speech the vocal cords vibrate and a sound is produced. ‫ هي زوج من األغشية توجد داخل تجويف الحنجرة تتصل بالغضروف األول من األعلى‬:‫الحبال الصوتية‬.‫ عند التحدث تهتز الحبال الصوتية وتنتج الصوت‬،‫والغضروف الثالث من األسفل‬ Q / What is the location of vocal cords? A / Inside the larynx cavity. ‫ ما هو موقع الحبال الصوتية؟‬/‫س‬.‫ داخل تجويف الحنجرة‬/‫ج‬ Q / What is the location of non-vocal cords? A / Inside the larynx cavity. Q / Larynx is called as voice box. Why? A / Because during the speech the vocal cords vibrate and a sound is produced, because the air leaving from the lungs passes over the vocal cords. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ تدعى الحنجرة بصندوق الصوت‬/‫س‬ ‫ ألن الهواء المغادر من الرئتين يمر فوق الحبال‬،‫ ألنه عند التحدث تهتز الحبال الصوتية وينتج الصوت‬/‫ج‬.‫الصوتية‬ Trachea: It is a tube which is located in the chest in front of the esophagus. Its length is 12 cm and its width is 2.5 cm. It is always open so the air can enter and leave out easily. Because it is composed of (16-20) C-shaped cartilages which keep it open. ‫ تكون‬.‫سم‬2.5 ‫سم وعرضها‬12 ‫ طولها‬.‫ هي عبارة عن أنبوبة تقع في الصدر أمام المريء‬:‫القصبة الهوائية‬ ‫) قطعة غضروفية‬16-20( ‫ بسبب احتوائها على‬.‫مفتوحة دائما لذا يمكن للهواء بالدخول والخروج بسهولة‬.‫ لتبقيها مفتوحة‬C ‫على شكل حرف‬ Q / Trachea is always open. Why? A / It is always open so the air can enter and leave out easily. Because it is composed of (16-20) C-shaped cartilages which keep it open. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ تكون القصبة الهوائية مفتوحة دائما‬/‫س‬ ‫) قطعة‬16-20( ‫ بسبب احتوائها على‬.‫ تكون مفتوحة دائما لذا يمكن للهواء بالدخول والخروج بسهولة‬/‫ج‬.‫ لتبقيها مفتوحة‬C ‫غضروفية على شكل حرف‬ Q / What is the location of Trachea? A /In the chest in front of the esophagus. ‫ ما موقع القصبة الهوائية؟‬/‫س‬.‫ في الصدر أمام المريء‬/‫ج‬ Q / Trachea is not circle (ring shaped ) completely. Why? A / To help esophagus to expand when the big food molecules pass through it. ‫ لماذا؟‬.)‫ تكون القصبة الهوائية غير مكتملة االستدارة (حلقية الشكل‬/‫س‬.‫ لمساعدة المريء على التوسع عند مرور جزيئات الطعام الكبيرة فيها‬/‫ج‬ Q / The trachea is lined by the ciliated mucosal membrane. Why? A / Because The cilia catch and throw out the foreign particles to prevent the entering of the dust particles inside the lungs. ‫س‪ /‬تبطن القصبة الهوائية بغشاء مخاطي مهدب‪.‬لماذا؟‬ ‫ج‪ /‬ألن األهداب تمسك بالجزيئات الغريبة وتقذفها خارجا لمنع دخول جزيئات الغبار داخل الرئتين‪.‬‬ ‫?‪Q / The Trachea consists of C-shaped cartilage rings. Why‬‬ ‫‪A / To keep the trachea open so the air can enter and leave out easily.‬‬ ‫س‪ /‬تحتوي القصبة الهوائية على حلقات غضروفية على شكل حرف ‪.C‬لماذا؟‬ ‫ج‪ /‬إلبقاء القصبة الهوائية مفتوحة لذا يمكن للهواء بالدخول والخروج بسهولة‪.‬‬ ‫‪Bronchioles: are small branches located in the lungs. They are subdivided into air‬‬ ‫‪sacs which consists of small rooms are called as alveoli which surrounded by a‬‬ ‫‪network of blood capillaries.‬‬ ‫القصيبات الهوائية‪ :‬هي فروع صغيرة تقع في الرئتين تنقسم إلى أكياس هوائية تتكون من غرف صغيرة‬ ‫تسمى بالحويصالت الهوائية التي تحاط بشبكة من الشعيرات الدموية‪.‬‬ ‫‪Alveoli: are air sac which consists of small rooms, it has thin walls surrounded by‬‬ ‫‪a network of blood capillaries which branched from pulmonary artery, the‬‬ ‫‪exchange of gas between blood and environment occurs through the walls of the‬‬ ‫‪alveoli.‬‬ ‫الحويصالت الهوائية‪ :‬هي أكياس هوائية تتكون من غرف صغيرة‪ ,‬تحتوي على جدران رقيقة تحاط بشبكة من‬ ‫األوعية الدموية التي تتفرع من الشريان الرئوي‪ ،‬تبادل الغازات بين الدم والبيئة يحدث عبر جدران‬ ‫الحويصالت الرئوية‪.‬‬ ‫?‪Q / What is the location of Alveoli‬‬ ‫‪A / Inside bronchioles.‬‬ ‫س‪ /‬ما موقع الحويصالت الهوائية؟‬ ‫ج‪ /‬داخل القصيبات الهوائية‪.‬‬ ‫‪Lungs: are big, spongy and conical shaped organs, they are located in the chest‬‬ ‫‪cavity. The thoracic cavity is separated from abdominal cavity by a muscular wall‬‬ ‫‪called diaphragm. The right lung is bigger than the left lung, the right lung has‬‬ ‫‪three lobes and the left lung has two lobes.‬‬ ‫الرئتان‪ :‬هما عضوان إسفنجيان كبيران ومخروطيا الشكل‪ ,‬يقعان في تجويف الصدر‪.‬يفصل التجويف‬ ‫الصدري عن التجويف البطني بجدار عضلي يدعى بالحجاب الحاجز‪.‬الرئة اليمنى اكبر من الرئة اليسرى‪،‬‬ ‫الرئة اليمنى لها ثالث فصوص والرئة اليسرى لها فصان‪.‬‬ Diaphragm: it is a muscular wall which separates the thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity..‫ هو جدار عضلي يفصل التجويف الصدري عن التجويف البطني‬:‫الحجاب الحاجز‬ Each lung is surrounded by a thin and double layer membrane called pleura..‫تحاط كل رئة بغشاء ذو طبقة مزدوجة تدعى بالجنب‬ There are two membranes (layers) that surrounds lungs are visceral pleura membrane (inner layer) and parietal pleura membrane (outer layer). ‫هنالك غشائين (طبقتين) تحيط بالرئتين هما غشاء الجنب الحشوي (الطبقة الداخلية) وغشاء الجنب‬.)‫الجداري (الطبقة الخارجية‬ Pleural cavity: it is a space located between the layers of lung. It contains small amount of fluid which facilitates the working of lungs during breathing. This fluid called pleura fluid. ‫ يحتوي على كمية صغيرة من سائل يسهل عمل‬.‫ هي المسافة الواقعة بين طبقتي الرئة‬:‫فراغ الجنب‬.‫ يدعى هذا السائل بسائل الجنب‬.‫الرئتين عن التنفس‬ Pleural fluid: it is a fluid located in pleura cavity, which facilitates the working of lungs during breathing. Q / Compare between Inhalation and Exhalation..‫ قارن بين الشهيق والزفير‬/‫س‬ Inhalation Exhalation 1. Diaphragm contract and becomes 1. Diaphragm and ribs return to flattened. normal position. Diaphragm relaxes. 2. Intercostal muscles found 2. Intercostal muscles relax. between the ribs contract. 3. Inner pressure of the lungs 3. Inner pressure of the lungs decreases and the volume of chest increases and the volume of chest cavity increases. cavity decreases. 4. The air passes through the 4. The expulsion of air from the respiratory organs and enters the lungs to outside. lungs. 5. Oxygen enter the lungs. 5. Carbon dioxide leave the lungs. External respiration (Pulmonary respiration): It is the process of gas exchange between the blood and alveoli. The oxygen diffuses from alveoli to the blood capillaries and blood becomes oxygenated. At the same time, the carbon dioxide and water vapour diffuse from blood to alveoli and they are removed by exhalation. External respiration provides gas exchange between an organism and its environment. ‫ ينتشار‬.‫ هي عملية التبادل الغازي بين الدم والحويصالت الهوائية‬:)‫التنفس الخارجي (التنفس الرئوي‬ ‫األوكسجين من الحويصالت الهوائية إلى الشعيرات الدموية والدم ليصبح مؤكسجا وفي نفس الوقت ينتشار‬.‫ثنائي أوكسيد الكربون وبخار الماء من الدم إلى الحويصالت الهوائية والتي تطرح للخارج بواسطة الزفير‬.‫يوفر التنفس الخارجي تبادل غازي بين الكائن وبيئته‬ Internal respiration: it is the process of gas exchange between body tissues and blood. The oxygen passes from blood to body cells while needed energy is produced to perform metabolic activities in the body. The carbon dioxide and water vapour are produced and they pass into the blood so blood becomes de- oxygenated. After that, this de-oxygenated blood is transferred into the pulmonary alveoli located in the lungs to discharge these wastes and these wastes are thrown out by exhalation. Internal respiration provides gas exchange between blood and body cells. ‫ينتشار األوكسجين من الدم إلى خاليا‬.‫ هي عملية التبادل الغازي بين أنسجة الجسم والدم‬:‫التنفس الداخلي‬ ‫ ينتج غاز ثنائي أوكسيد الكربون وبخار‬.‫الجسم بينما تنتج الطاقة الالزمة إلنجاز الفعاليات الحيوية في الجسم‬ ‫ ينقل هذا الدم الغير مؤكسج الى الحويصالت‬،‫ بعد ذلك‬.‫الماء وينتقالن إلى الدم فيصبح الدم غير مؤكسجا‬.‫الهوائية الرئوية الموجودة في الرئتين لطرح هذه الفضالت وتطرح هذه الفضالت خارجا بواسطة الزفير‬ ‫يوفرالتنفس الداخلي تبادل غازي بين الدم وخاليا الجسم‬ Some Diseases of Respiratory System Q / What are the Symptoms of Catarrhal Bronchitis? 1. The patient suffers from strong and dry cough. Then it changes to cough contaminated with blood. 2. Patient’s body temperature increases. 3. It is possible to hear strong sounds when the patient breathes because of the respiratory difficulties which last few days and then disappear. 4. These conditions change to chronic disease and the patient becomes worse and coughs stronger. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Catarrhal Bronchitis? 1. Patient must take enough rest and drink much fluids. 2. Decreasing body temperature by using wet towel. 3. Using handkerchief when coughing and sneezing. 4. Wearing suitable clothes during winter. Q / How can Catarrhal Bronchitis be Prevented? 1. Pay high attention to self-cleaning. 2. Avoid staying in bad ventilated places. 3. Stay away from patients with such diseases. 4. Exercising regularly and eating food rich with vitamin C. Q / What are the causes of Pulmonary Tuberculosis? A / A rod shaped bacterium called Koch’s bacillus. Q / What are the Symptoms of Pulmonary Tuberculosis? 1. Inappetence, losing work ability, feeling tired 2. Patient loses weight gradually. 3. At the beginning of this disease, patient suffers from slight and dry cough. 4. Body temperature and sweating increase. If the disease continues, the strength of the cough increases especially during the night and it changes into cough contaminated with blood. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Pulmonary Tuberculosis? 1. Taking treatments according to physician instructions. 2. Eating food rich in proteins and vitamins. 3. Don’t smoke and avoid staying in smoking and polluted areas. 4. Keep away from physical activities during infection period. Q / How can Pulmonary Tuberculosis be Prevented? 1. Vaccination the children with (BCG) vaccine in early age. 2. Spiting on the ground must be prevented. 3. We must take care hygienic conditions in general places. 4. We must sterilize the milk and milk products. 5. When a person feels any symptoms of this disease, he must visit the physician. 6. Smoking and drinking alcohol is dangerous because it reduces the body immunity. 7. Good living conditions are provided, like good nutrition and fresh air. Whooping Cough: is a common and very contagious disease. It infects the children between the ages of 1-8 years. Q / Whooping Cough spreads in towns much more than in villages. Why? A / Because of the crowded and air pollution in towns. Q / What is the incubation period of whooping cough? A / One week or Two weeks. Q / What are the Symptoms of whooping cough? 1. The inflammation of pharynx. And the upper part of trachea is inflamed and simple cough is seen. This stage is lasts about 10 days 2. The coughing becomes heavier and changes to a strong attack. 3. This attack lasts about 2-3 minutes and sometimes patient's vomits, when the coughing attack increases, the patient’s face become bluish or reddish, bleeding may happen in the nose and the lower regions of the eyes, the coughing attack increases when the patient expose to cold air and smoke. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Whooping cough? 1. Visiting doctor is necessary if one of the symptoms is notices. 2. Isolate the infected child from other children. 3. Child must be in good ventilated place. Q / How can whooping cough be Prevented? 1. Vaccination of the children with triple-vaccine, for three months. Against diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus. 2. Keep out the children from contacting with infected patients. 3. Sterilization of the patient’s tools contaminated with microbes, their rooms and beds. Q / Vaccination of the children with triple-vaccine. Why? A / To prevent the infection with diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus. Pneumonia: it is a dangerous disease and caused by a bacteria called Pneumonia. These bacteria infect the lungs and cause loss of function. Q / What are the causes of Pneumonia? A / Bacteria called Pneumonia. Q / What are the Symptoms of Pneumonia? 1. Body temperature increases. 2. Pale face, strong headache, tiredness and increasing heart rate. 3. Contaminated cough with greenish phlegm. Q / What is the Treatment of Pneumonia? 1. Visit the physician and taking the necessary antibiotics. 3. Taking food rich in calories and vitamins. 4. Providing the fresh air for patient. Q / How can Pneumonia be Prevented? 1. Patients must be isolated. 2. Doing exercises and staying away from contaminated places. 3. Avoiding smoking. 4. Using handkerchiefs while coughing. Q / Lung cancer is seen especially in men. Why? A / Because of smoking much. Q / Less activity and ability of lung because of smoking. Why? A / Because the lungs will infect with cancer, the risk of lung cancer in smokers is 15 -30 times more than in non-smokers. Q / What are the causes of Lung cancer? 1. Smoking. 2. The air contaminated with smoke and other materials which are produced from the factories, vehicles, trains and others. Q / What are the Symptoms of Lung cancer? 1. Increasing body temperature and sweating at night. 2. Hard breathing and dry cough in early stages. 3. General weakness and inappetence. 4. Cough contaminated with blood in late stages. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Lung cancer? 1. Visiting the physician when any of the Symptoms seen. 2. Treatment may be needed chemotherapy or exposing to the radiation. 3. Infected part of lung can be removed by medical surgery. Q / How can Lung cancer be Prevented? 1. Stay away from polluted and bad ventilated places. 2. Avoid smoking or being around smokers in same room. 3. Avoid alcohol and non-diagnosed drugs because they are weaken body immunity. Asthma: It is an illness that makes it difficult to breathe and infects the respiratory tract of human. Q / Dust particles which enter the respiratory tract make it narrow. Why? A / Because they are allergens for patient. Q / What are the Symptoms of Asthma? 1- Breathing difficulties. 2- Dry cough with vomiting. 3- Pain in the chest. 4- Decreasing movement ability. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Asthma? 1. Visiting the physician and taking necessary drugs. 2. Using special sprays which dilate the bronchi. 3. Avoid being in crowded and polluted Places. Q / How can Asthma be Prevented? 1. Avoid smoking 2. Wearing a mask or using wet towels if it is necessary. Especially during sand storms. 3. Doing exercises regularly like walking in uncrowded places. Ch.7 / Excretion (15 M.) Types of Excretion in Human ‫أنواع اإلخراج في اإلنسان‬ Q / What are the types of excretion in human? 1. Digestive excretion: Undigested food materials, water, bacteria and dead cells, are thrown out by digestive tract. 2. Pulmonary excretion: Carbon dioxide and water vapor are removed by respiratory system. 3. Renal excretion: Blood is filtered from excess amount of water and harmful materials such as urea are thrown out by urinary system. 4. Skin excretion: Excess amount of water, salts, urea and small amount of CO 2 are thrown out by skin. ‫ ما هي أنواع اإلخراج في اإلنسان؟‬/‫س‬ ‫ البكتيريا والخاليا الحية تطرح للخارج عن‬,‫ الماء‬،‫ جزيئات الطعام غير المهضومة‬:‫ اإلخراج الهضمي‬. 1.‫طريق القناة الهضمية‬.‫ ثاني أوكسيد الكربون وبخار الماء تطرح عن طريق الجهاز التنفسي‬:‫ اإلخراج الرئوي‬. 2 ‫ يترشح الدم من الكمية الزائدة من الماء والمواد الضارة كاليوريا وتطرح للخارج عن‬:‫ اإلخراج الكلوي‬. 3.‫طريق الجهاز البولي‬ ‫ اليوريا وكمية قليلة من ثاني أوكسيد الكربون تطرح‬,‫ األمالح‬,‫ الكمية الزائدة من الماء‬:‫ اإلخراج الجلدي‬. 4.‫للخارج عن طريق الجلد‬ Urinary System ‫الجهاز البولي‬ 1. Kidneys: are bean shaped organs located on the back wall of the abdominal cavity on the each side of the vertebral column. Its concave side towards the vertebral column. They are surrounded by a thin membrane called capsule. Each kidney consists of two layer Cortex and Medulla. Kidney consists of microscopic filtering units called nephrons. ‫ هما عضوان يشبهان الفاصوليا تقع على الجانب الظهري للتجويف البطني على جانبي العمود‬:‫الكليتان‬ ‫ كل كلية‬.)‫ تحاط بغشاء رقيق يدعى بغالف الكلية (الكبسولة‬.‫ جهتها المحدبة نحو العمود الفقري‬.‫الفقري‬.‫ تتكون الكلية من وحدتن ترشيحية مجهرية تدعى بالوحدات الكلوية‬.‫تتكون من طبقتين هما القشرة واللب‬ Q / What is the location of nephrons? A / In the kidney. Capsule: it is a thin membrane that surrounds kidneys. Q / What are the layers of kidney? 1. Cortex. 2. Medulla. Cortex: it is the outer layer of the kidney and it is red in color..‫ هي الطبقة الخارجية من الكلية وتكون أحمر اللون‬:‫القشرة‬ Medulla: it is the inner layer of the kidney and it is bright in color..‫ هي الطبقة الداخلية من الكلية ويكون لونها فاتح‬:‫اللب‬ Kidney Pelvis: it is a cavity found in the center of medulla..‫ هو تجويف يقع في وسط اللب‬:‫حوض الكلية‬ Q / Medulla is striped and similar to rays. Why? A / Because it contains many urinary tubules. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ يكون اللب مخططا ومشابها لألشعة‬/‫س‬.‫ بسبب إحتواءه على عدة نبيبات بولية‬/‫ج‬ 2. Ureters: they are muscular tubes which connect the kidneys and the back wall of the bladder. They transport urine from kidneys to bladder. Each ureter consists of smooth muscles and each one is 22cm long. ‫ كل‬.‫ تنقل البول من الكليتين إلى المثانة‬.‫ هما أنبوبان عضليان تربط الكليتين بالجدار الظهري للمثانة‬:‫الحالبان‬.‫سم‬22 ‫حالب يحتوي على عضالت ملساء وكل واحد منهما طوله‬ 3. Urinary Bladder: it is a sac which stores urine and it consists of smooth muscles (involuntary). In the connection point of the bladder with urethra, there are circular striated muscles (voluntary). Some Diseases of Urinary System Diabetes: it is a disease that caused by decreases in insulin hormone so the level of glucose increases in blood. Increasing sugar level damages some organs especially eyes, skin and kidneys. Q / What are the Symptoms of Diabetes? 1. Getting tired very quickly. 2. Loss of weight. 3. Thirst. 4. Repetition of urination. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Diabetes? 1. Injecting insulin or taking tablets help to reduce the sugar level in the blood. 3. The patients must eat food which contain less starch and sugar. Q / What are the causes of Albuminuria? A / The protein materials like albumin are filtered and discharge from the body by urine. Q / What are the Symptoms of Albuminuria? 1. Anemia and the pale face. 2. Yellowish urine with hyper urination. 3. Burning during urination due to urinary tracts inflammation. 4. Many red pumpels seen on legs. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of Albuminuria? 1. Reduce the protein and salts in food. 2. Drink more water. Q / What are the causes of kidney stones? A / Salt precipitation happens and these salts change to stones in the kidney pelvis, ureters or urinary bladder. Q / What are the Symptoms of Kidney stones? 1. Patient urinate frequently and feels severe pain in the lumbar region or the body sides. 2. Bloody urination occurs because of injuries in the walls of urinary tract. 3. Renal colic occurs due to the movement of stones. Q / What is the Treatment (Remedy) of kidney stones? 1. Patients must reduce eating the food which contain phosphate or oxalate such us tomato. 2. Advise the specialist physician immediately. Q / Why the patients with kidney stones must reduce tomato in their food? A / Because tomato contain phosphate or oxalate. Skin: is a cover which surrounds the body and protects it from external effects and discharges the waste materials which are formed in the body..‫ هو غالف يحيط بالجسم ويحميه من المؤثرات الخارجية ويقوم بطرح الفضالت المتكونة في الجسم‬:‫الجلد‬ Q / What are the functions of skin? 1. Protects the body from external effects. 2. Discharges the waste materials which are formed in the body. 3. The human skin contains sweat glands which have an important role in discharging operation. ‫ ما هي وظائف الجلد؟‬/‫س‬.‫ حماية الجسم من المؤثرات الخارجية‬.1.‫ طرح الفضالت المتكونة في الجسم‬.2.‫ يحتوي جلد اإلنسان على غدد عرقية التي لها دور مهم في عملية اإلخراج‬.3 Q / The skin is important for keeping and balancing the body temperature. Why? A / Because it contains sweat glands which have an important role in discharging operation when the weather becomes very hot or when the human performs a hard muscular work. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ للجلد أهمية في المحافظة على درجة حرارة الجسم‬/‫س‬ ‫ ألنها تحتوي على غدد عرقية لها أهمية في عملية طرح الفضالت عندما يكون الطقس حارا جدا أو عندما‬/‫ج‬.‫يقوم اإلنسان بعمل عضلي قوي‬ * Human skin consists of two main layers; Epidermis (outer layer) and Dermis (inner layer). Epidermis: it is the first layer of the skin. It is composed of two layers, outer layer called keratin layer and inner layer called germinative (Malphegian) layer. ‫ الطبقة الخارجية تدعى بالطبقة المتقرنة والطبقة الداخلية‬،‫ تتكون من طبقتين‬،‫ هي أول طبقة من الجلد‬:‫البشرة‬.)‫تدعى بالطبقة المولدة (المالبيجية‬ Keratin layer: it is the outer layer of the epidermis and contains no blood vessels and nerve branches. It is a tough substance composed of dead cells connected with each other. These dead cells are removed gradually from the body surface during washing or itching and replaced by new keratinized cells pushed out from germinative layer. ‫ هي مادة‬.‫ هي الطبقة الخارجية من البشرة والتحتوي على أوعية دموية وتفرعات عصبية‬:‫الطبقة المتقرنة‬ ‫ هذه الخاليا الميتة تندثر تدريجيا من سطح الجسم عند‬.‫رقيقة تتركب من خاليا ميتة متصلة ببعضها البعض‬.‫اإل ستحمام أو الحك وتعوض بخاليا متقرنة جديدة تدفع للخارج من الطبقة المولدة‬ Germinative (Malphegian) layer: is the second layer of the epidermis. It is found under the keratin layer. It consists of living cells which have ability to divide and produce new cells. This layer contains the nerve fibers ends and sweat glands ducts but contains no blood vessels ‫ تحتوي على خاليا حية لها‬.‫ توجد تحت الطبقة المتقرنة‬.‫ هي ثاني طبقة في البشرة‬:)‫الطبقة المولدة (المالبيجية‬ ‫ تحتوي هذه الطبقة على نهايات ألياف عصبية وقنوات غدد عرقية‬.‫القدرة على اإلنقسام وإنتاج خاليا جديدة‬.‫لكنها التحتوي على أوعية دموية‬ Melanin: it is pigment materials located in the germinative layer of the skin. The color of skin depends on this pigment. If a person exposures to the sunlight, these pigment materials increased. ‫ إذا تعرض‬.‫ يعتمد لون الجلد على هذه الصبغة‬.‫ هي مواد صبغية توجد في الطبقة المولدة في الجلد‬:‫الميالنين‬.‫ تزداد هذه المواد الصبغية‬،‫الشخص الى ضوء الشمس‬ Dermis: it is the second layer of the skin. It consists of living tissues and contains connective tissues, blood vessels and nerves. The connective tissue gives elasticity and strength to the skin. The surface of this layer is wavy and this wavy structure forms dermis papillae..‫ أوعية دموية وأعصاب‬،‫ تتكون من أنسجة حية وتحتوي أنسجة رابطة‬.‫ هي ثاني طبقة من الجلد‬:‫األدمة‬ ‫ يكون سطح هذه الطبقة متموج وهذا التركيب المتموج يكون‬.‫يعطي النسيج الرابط المطاطية والقوة للجلد‬.‫حليمات األدمة‬ Hairs: they are thin keratinized threads originated from epidermis layer. Each hair consists of hair shaft, hair follicle, hair root and sebaceous glands. ‫ بصلة‬،‫ كل شعرة تحتوي على قصبة الشعرة‬.‫ هو عبارة عن خيوط متقرنة تنشأ من طبقة البشرة‬:‫الشعر‬.‫ جذر الشعرة والغدد الدهنية‬،‫الشعرة‬ Q / Sebaceous glands secrete a fatty liquid over the skin surface. Why? A / Because this fatty liquid keeps the skin from cracking and drying. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ الغدد الدهنية تفرز سائل دهني على سطح الجلد‬/‫س‬.‫ ألن السائل الدهني يحمي الجلد من التكسر والجفاف‬/‫ج‬ Nails: they are hard structures, composed of hard, horn-like, keratinized dead cells which are originated from epidermis and it has a root embedded in the dermis. A nail has root embedded in the dermis. ‫ تتكون من خاليا ميتة صلبة متقرنة تشبه القرن تنشأ من البشرة ولها جذر مغمور‬،‫ هي تراكيب صلبة‬:‫األظافر‬.‫ يحتوي الظفر على جذر مغروس في األدمة‬.‫في األدمة‬ Q / What is the function of nails? A / They Protect the fingers and toe tips. ‫ ما هي وظيفة األظافر؟‬/‫س‬.‫ حماية نهايات أصابع اليد والقدم‬/‫ج‬ Sebaceous glands: They are glands associated with hair and they secrete fatty liquid which keeps the skin from cracking and drying..‫ هي غدد مرافقة للشعر وتفرز سائل دهني يحمي الجلد من التكسر والجفاف‬:‫الغدد الدهنية‬ Q / What is the function of sebaceous glands? A / Secrete fatty liquid which keeps the skin from cracking and drying. ‫ ما هي وظيفة الغدد الدهنية؟‬/‫س‬.‫أفراز سوائل دهنية تحمي الجلد من التكسر والجفاف‬/‫ج‬ Q / What is the function of mammary glands? A / They secrete milk that contains nutrients for infant. ‫ ما هي وظيفة الغدد اللبنية؟‬/‫س‬.‫ تفرز الحليب المحتوي على مواد مغذية للرضيع‬/‫ج‬ Sweat gland: is a thin tube coiled at the base situated in the dermis layer and surrounded by blood capillaries. The duct of glands passes through skin layers and opens to out by a minute depression called pores. ‫ تمر القناة الغدية‬.‫هي أنبوب رقيق ملتف عند القاعدة يقع في طبقة األدمة ويحاط بأوعية دموية‬:‫الغدة العرقية‬.‫عبر طيقات الجلد وتفتح للخارج عن طريق فتحات دقيقة تدعى بالمسامات‬ Sweat: it is a liquid secreted by sweat glands. It contains 99% of water and 1% of solvent solid materials such as sodium salts, small amount of urea, some fatty acids and amino acids. ،‫ مواد صلبة ذائبة مثل أمالح الصوديوم‬%1 ‫ ماء و‬%99 ‫ يحتوي على‬.‫ هو سائل تفرزه الغدد العرقية‬:‫العرق‬.‫ بعض األحماض الدهنية واألحماض األمينية‬،‫كمية صغيرة من اليوريا‬ Q / What are the factors that affect on sweating? 1. Environmental temperature. 2. Sweating may happen as a result of psychological conditions such as fear. This type of sweating is called cold sweating. 3. Muscular activity increases the sweating such as running. 4. Sweating increases in the case of tiredness. 5. Sweating decreases in the case of rest or working quietly. Q / How can we take care of the skin? 1. Have bath periodically. 2. Keep your skin away from strong sunlight. 3. Don’t press on adolescent acne, they are natural result of some hormones. 4. Don’t get tattoo on your skin. Because it can cause allergic skin reactions. 5. The clothes must not be tight and adhere to the skin. Because it limits the muscle movement and blood circulation. 6. We must visit the physician when we notice the appearance of some skin diseases. 7. The internal clothes must not be rough and harsh such as woolen cloth which irritate the skin and cause the scratching. Q / Don’t press on adolescent acne. Why? A / Because they are natural result of some hormones. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ عدم لمس حب الشباب‬/‫س‬.‫ ألنها ناتج طبيعي من بعض الهرمونات‬/‫ج‬ Q / Don’t get tattoo on your skin. Why? A / Because it can cause allergic skin reactions. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ عدم عمل وشم على جلدك‬/‫س‬.‫ ألنها يمكن أن تسبب تفاعالت حساسية للجلد‬/‫ج‬ Q / Don’t wear the clothes which are too tight and adhere to the skin. Why? A / Because it limits the muscle movement and blood circulation. ‫ لماذا؟‬.‫ عدم ارتداء المالبس التي تكون ضيقة وملتصقة بالجلد‬/‫س‬.‫ ألنها تعيق حركة العضالت والدورة الدموية‬/‫ج‬ Ch.8 / Reproductive system (10 M.) Male Reproductive System‫الجهاز التناسلي الذكري‬ Testes: they are two oval shaped glands. These glands produce male reproductive cells called sperm and hormones which are responsible for secondary sexual characteristics in male such as beard and moustache. ‫ هما غدتان بيضويتا الشكل تنتج الخاليا التكاثرية الذكرية التي تدعى‬:‫الخصيتان‬ ‫بالنطف والهرمونات المسؤولة عن الصفات الجنسية الثانوية في الذكور مثل اللحية‬.‫والشوارب‬ Sperms: they are male reproductive cells produced by testes. It unites with an egg to produce new offspring..‫ تتحد مع البيضة إلنتاج جيل جديد‬.‫ هي خلية تكاثرية ذكرية تنتج بواسطة الخصيتان‬:‫النطفة‬ Vas deference ducts: they are a pair of ducts which transport sperm from testes to urethra. Each vas deference duct opens to urethra at the neck of bladder. ‫ كل وعاء ناقل يفتح لإلحليل‬.‫ هي زوج من القنوات تنقل النطف من الخصيتان إلى اإلحليل‬:‫األوعية الناقلة‬.‫في عنق المثانة‬ Epididymis: it is a long coiled tube found at the beginning of the each vas deference duct. Sperms are stored here till maturation..‫ تخزن النطف فيه حتى تنضج‬.‫ هو أنبوب ملتف طويل يوجد في بداية كل وعاء ناقل‬:‫البربخ‬ Seminal vesicles: they are two sacs at the end of each vas deference duct nearby the neck of bladder. They store sperms after maturation..‫ تخزن النطف بعد نضجها‬.‫ هما كيسان في نهاية كل وعاء ناقل قرب عنق المثانة‬:‫الحويصلتان المنويتان‬ There are two associated glands in the male reproductive system Prostate gland and Cowper’s gland. Prostate gland: it is an associated gland in the male reproductive system. They secrete different liquids to protect, maintain and to facilitate the movement of male reproductive cells. ‫ للمحافظة ولتسهيل‬،‫ تفرز سوائل مختلفة للحماية‬.‫ هي غدة ملحقة بالجهاز التناسلي الذكري‬:‫غدة البروستات‬.‫حركة الخاليا التكاثرية الذكرية‬ Cowper’s gland: it is an associated gland in the male reproductive system. They secrete different liquids to protect, maintain and to facilitate the movement of male reproductive cells. ‫ للمحافظة ولتسهيل حركة‬،‫ تفرز سوائل مختلفة للحماية‬.‫ هي غدة ملحقة بالجهاز التناسلي الذكري‬:‫غدتا كوبر‬.‫الخاليا التكاثرية الذكرية‬ The male reaches the puberty during the age of 15 years. Male reproductive cell consists of Head, Short neck and Long tail. Female Reproductive System Ovaries: they are oval shaped glands located at the lower part of abdominal cavity at both sides of the uterus. They are responsible for producing egg and hormones which are responsible for secondary sexual characteristics in female. ‫ تكون‬.‫ هي غدد بيضوية الشكل تقع في الجزء السفلي من التجويف البطني على جانبي الرحم‬:‫المبايض‬.‫مسؤولة عن إنتاج البيضة والهرمونات المسؤولة عن الصفات الجنسية الثانوية في اإلناث‬ Egg (Ova): it is a female reproductive cell produced by ovaries. It can be divided to give rise to an embryo after fertilization by sperm. ‫ يمكنها اإلنقسام لتكوين جنين بعد‬.‫ هي خلية تكاثرية أنثوية تنتج بواسطة المبايض‬:‫البيضة‬.‫إخصابها بالنطف‬ Oviduct (Fallopian tube): it is a tube which transports egg from ovary to uterus. The beginning of oviduct is funnel shaped and covers ovary partially. ‫ بداية قناة البيض اكون قمعية‬.‫ هو أنبوب ينقل البيضة من المبيض إلى ا

مراجعة مركزة متميزين 2024 PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue