MPW Class Notes Power and Politics PDF

MPW Class Notes Power and Politics Week 10 Power and Influence in the Workplace Having expert power—power that stems from your knowledge, skills, and expertise—is important, but it is not enough on its own. That’s why Organizational Behavior (OB) is arguably the most important, yet often the most...

MPW Class Notes Power and Politics Week 10 Power and Influence in the Workplace Having expert power—power that stems from your knowledge, skills, and expertise—is important, but it is not enough on its own. That’s why Organizational Behavior (OB) is arguably the most important, yet often the most challenging and sometimes vague subject to master. OB doesn't just teach you how to work for others; it equips you with the tools to understand how to make others work effectively with and for you. In essence, OB helps you learn how to navigate the complex dynamics of power and influence in organizations. After leaving SMU and entering the professional world, you will likely want to cultivate other forms of power to complement your expertise. These types of power play different roles in how you lead and manage relationships at work: 1. Reward Power Reward power comes from your ability to offer something valuable to others in exchange for their compliance or cooperation. This can include tangible rewards like bonuses, raises, promotions, or extra time off, but it can also be less formal, such as offering recognition, praise, or opportunities for professional growth. Reward power is essential for motivating people and reinforcing desired behaviors. For example, offering a bonus for meeting a sales target can inspire employees to push harder toward that goal. 2. Referent Power Referent power arises from being trusted, admired, and respected by others. This type of power is not linked to a position or title but rather to your personal 1  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics qualities, such as integrity, charisma, and the ability to build strong, positive relationships. Leaders with referent power inspire loyalty and are often seen as role models. Their influence stems from others’ desire to identify with or be associated with them. For instance, think of a mentor or respected colleague whose opinion you value because of who they are, not just because of their formal role. 3. Positional Power Positional power, also known as legitimate power, is derived from the formal authority given to you by your position within an organization. This type of power allows you to make decisions, give orders, and influence outcomes simply because of the role you hold—whether it's as a manager, department head, or senior leader. However, positional power alone can be limiting if not combined with other forms of influence, as people may comply only because they "have to" rather than because they want to. 4. Coercive Power Coercive power is exercised through the use of threats or punishments to compel compliance. This power stems from the fear of negative consequences, such as being fired, demoted, receiving poor performance reviews, or being assigned undesirable tasks. While coercive power can be effective in certain short-term situations (such as maintaining discipline in a crisis), over-reliance on it can lead to a toxic work environment, reduced morale, and high employee turnover. Therefore, it should be used sparingly and with caution. To be an effective leader, it is important to understand and skillfully apply these different types of power. Expert power will always be valuable, but your ability to lead others and achieve organizational goals will depend on how you balance and use reward, referent, positional, and coercive power. Mastering these aspects of power requires not just theoretical knowledge, but also emotional intelligence, relationship-building skills, and practical experience—all of which are central to the study of Organizational Behavior. 2  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics The Role of Generosity and Self-Monitoring in Achieving Elevated Status 1. Perceived Generosity and Social Status Perceived generosity plays a significant role in shaping one’s social status within an organization. When others view you as generous and helpful, they tend to grant you elevated status. This is because generosity signals that you care about the well-being and success of those around you, fostering trust, admiration, and respect. In work environments, where collaboration and mutual support are highly valued, those seen as generous are often positioned as informal leaders, even if they do not hold formal authority. 2. Building Status through Generosity Establishing yourself as a generous and helpful coworker can be one of the most effective ways to gain respect and status among your peers. Offering assistance, sharing resources, and helping others achieve their goals enhances your social capital—making you someone others want to work with and support. For instance, coworkers may view you as a "go-to" person not only for technical advice but also for emotional support, positioning you as a valuable member of the team. This status doesn't just result in personal satisfaction but also creates opportunities for leadership roles and greater influence within the organization. 3. The Influence of Self-Monitoring on Status Acquisition Individuals who are high in self-monitoring—those who are particularly skilled at observing and adjusting their behavior to fit the social context—are often more successful at acquiring elevated status in group settings. Self-monitoring refers to the ability to regulate one's behavior based on social cues and feedback. High self-monitors are highly attuned to the dynamics of status and power in their environment, and they adjust their actions accordingly to align with what will gain them favor or approval. For example, a high self-monitor might notice that certain behaviors (like offering praise or taking on extra tasks) are rewarded in their workplace, so they adapt their behavior to 3  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics engage in those practices. By carefully managing how they present themselves, they can strategically elicit positive responses from others, thus increasing their status. In contrast, low self-monitors, who are less focused on controlling the image they present, may find it more challenging to navigate social dynamics and rise in status. Gender Disparities in High-Level Organizational Positions 1. The Underrepresentation of Women in Leadership Roles Women continue to be underrepresented in most high-level positions across organizations, including executive leadership and senior management roles. This gender gap is widely recognized, and many studies have investigated the underlying causes. A significant body of research attributes this disparity to bias and discrimination—both conscious and unconscious—that women face in the workplace. These barriers prevent equal opportunities for advancement, perpetuating a cycle of gender inequality in leadership. 2. Gender Differences in Professional Advancement Goals While bias and discrimination play a key role, OB research introduces another important explanation for this disparity: men and women view professional advancement differently, and these differing perspectives influence their decisions about climbing the corporate ladder. Rather than focusing solely on external obstacles like bias, we need to examine how internal, psychological factors shape career choices. There seems to be a profound and consistent gender gap in people’s core life goals, particularly in how they view power and professional achievement. Women tend to place less importance on power-related goals than men. 3. Perceptions of Power and Its Tradeoffs 4  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics Women, compared to men, associate high-power positions with more negative consequences, such as increased time constraints and difficult tradeoffs, particularly when it comes to balancing work and personal life. These perceptions shape women’s views of power, making high-power positions less desirable to them overall. For example, a woman might see a promotion to a senior executive role as requiring sacrifices that could detract from her personal goals or family life, while a man in the same position might view it primarily as a career milestone. This difference in perception explains why women are often less likely to actively pursue or take advantage of opportunities for professional advancement, even when those opportunities are available to them. 4. Implications for Organizational Change This research highlights the complexity of gender disparities in leadership roles. It suggests that addressing this issue requires more than combating bias and discrimination—it also involves rethinking how organizations design and present leadership roles. If power-related positions are seen as incompatible with broader life goals, particularly for women, then organizations may need to consider ways to make these roles more appealing or flexible. This could involve rethinking work-life balance initiatives, reworking the structure of leadership roles, or addressing the perceived tradeoffs that discourage women from pursuing them. The Role of Emotions and Gender in Negotiations 1. The Impact of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations In any negotiation, the emotions you display can significantly impact the outcome. Research shows that displaying anger during negotiations can lead to favorable outcomes, as it signals to your counterpart that you are serious and unwilling to compromise easily. This often 5  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics causes the other party to become more compliant and lower their demands, which is typically the desired effect. On the other hand, displaying happiness can have the opposite impact—eliciting exploitation. When you appear too happy or content, your counterpart may see this as an opportunity to push for more favorable terms for themselves, as they perceive you as less likely to push back or assert your needs. 2. Gender Differences in Emotional Expression and Perception When discussing whether "nice guys finish last" in the context of business, it’s essential to take gender differences into account. Emotions like anger are not just perceived differently across negotiation scenarios but also across genders. Research on anger and gender suggests that both men and women experience and express anger, but they are socialized to respond to this emotion in different ways. Women, in particular, are often socialized to suppress the outward expression of anger because it is seen as unfeminine or undesirable. This is rooted in societal expectations that women should be nurturing, agreeable, and composed. 3. The Double Standard in Anger Perception There is a clear double standard when it comes to how anger is perceived in men versus women. Studies have shown that when men express anger, it is often interpreted as a demonstration of competence, strength, and high status. People tend to accept, and even reward, men for displaying anger, as it aligns with the traditional view of male leadership— assertive, dominant, and in control. Conversely, when women express anger, the reaction is often negative. Women who lose their temper in professional settings may be viewed as less competent, overly emotional, or even out of control. This is because their anger runs counter to the traditional expectations of femininity, which favor calmness and composure. Instead of being seen as powerful or assertive, a woman’s display of anger can harm her status and undermine her perceived competence. 4. Implications for Negotiation Strategies Given these gendered perceptions, men and women must navigate negotiations differently when it comes to expressing emotions like anger. For men, showing controlled anger can be a powerful tool to assert dominance and competence in a negotiation, leading to better outcomes. However, for women, the same strategy can backfire, resulting in a loss of respect or status, which can make it harder to achieve favorable results. This doesn’t mean that women should avoid expressing their feelings altogether, but it does highlight the importance of being strategic about emotional expression in the workplace. 6  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics Women may need to find alternative ways to assert their positions without relying on anger, such as through calm assertiveness, clear communication, or leveraging other forms of power (e.g., expertise, relational influence). The Power of Nonconformity and Status 1. Nonconformity and Social Costs Nonconformity—the act of deviating from social norms or expected behaviors—often comes with social costs. People who break the rules of acceptable behavior can face judgment, criticism, or exclusion from their peers. However, there is a fascinating psychological twist to nonconformity: when people see someone breaking the rules, they often assume that the person occupies a powerful enough position that they do not need to worry about these social costs. In other words, rule-breaking can signal status and power. 2. Nonconformity as a Signal of Status Consider, for example, a keynote speaker at a prestigious event who is noticeably wearing mismatched socks. Rather than being seen as careless or out of touch, this act of nonconformity might be interpreted as a signal of the speaker’s confidence and high status. Similarly, a senior executive who shows up to work in jeans, while everyone else is wearing business attire, might be viewed as more powerful or important than if they had simply adhered to the dress code. The underlying assumption is that these individuals are so secure in their position that they are not concerned about conforming to social expectations. In these cases, nonconformity is not just about breaking the rules—it's about doing so deliberately and confidently. When people see others behaving in ways that deviate from the norm, they often perceive them as possessing higher status because they assume that only 7  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics those with power can afford to disregard social rules without fearing negative consequences. 3. The Status Gains from Nonconformity Though these examples of nonconformity may seem small, they can lead to significant status gains. By deliberately breaking accepted social rules, individuals send a message that they are not bound by the same constraints as others. This can make them appear more influential or successful in the eyes of their peers. This phenomenon is often referred to as the "Red Sneakers Effect," based on studies showing that people who dress in unconventional ways in formal settings (e.g., wearing red sneakers in a business meeting) are often seen as having higher status than those who follow traditional norms. The key to nonconformity as a status signal is intent. If others believe that the nonconformist behavior is accidental or due to ignorance, it is unlikely to boost status. However, when people perceive nonconformity as intentional and deliberate, they are more likely to attribute it to confidence, autonomy, and power. Prosocial Norm Violations and Social Hierarchies 1. The Social Climb to Power The question of what enables certain individuals to climb social hierarchies and rise to positions of power has long fascinated social scientists. While power is often associated with traits like confidence, competence, or authority, recent research has highlighted a more nuanced factor in power dynamics: prosocial norm violations. These are acts where individuals break social or organizational rules, not for personal gain, but for the benefit of others. This concept sheds new light on how individuals gain influence within a group. 8  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics 2. Prosocial Norm Violations and Power Power is often granted to those who demonstrate a willingness to violate social norms, but only when these violations are perceived as being in the interest of others. For example, imagine a situation where someone deliberately ignores a prohibition to tilt a bus seat or to open a window. If this norm violation results in giving fellow passengers more legroom or fresh air, the person who broke the rule is often perceived as more powerful than someone who followed the rules. The key here is the intention behind the act—when people break rules to benefit others, they are seen as altruistic and as having the courage to challenge the status quo for the greater good. This positions them as leaders and decision-makers who prioritize the well-being of the group. 3. The Power of Advancing Group Interests The takeaway from this research is clear: power is more readily granted to individuals who advance the collective interests of the group, even when they do so by bending or breaking minor rules. This is because people view these "benign norm violations" as signals of autonomy, confidence, and a willingness to prioritize group well-being over strict rule- following. In many cases, the ability to recognize when a rule is worth bending for the greater good is seen as a valuable leadership trait. By violating norms in a prosocial manner, individuals signal that they are not bound by unnecessary constraints and that they possess the vision and decisiveness to take action in situations where it benefits the group. This can lead to greater influence, respect, and ultimately, power. The Influence of Power on Perspective-Taking 1. Power and Its Effect on Empathy 9  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics One of the less obvious but significant effects of power is that it can impair an individual’s ability to take the perspective of others. While power can provide many benefits, such as greater control over resources and decision-making, it also comes with cognitive and emotional trade-offs. Research shows that people in positions of power often struggle to empathize with others or understand their viewpoints. This is because power is associated with an increased focus on one’s own goals and needs, which can make it harder to spontaneously consider the perspectives, beliefs, or intentions of others. 3. Power and Empathy Adam Galinsky and his colleagues conducted a study to explore the impact of power on the ability to adopt another person’s visual perspective—an important aspect of empathy and social understanding. In their experiment, participants were assigned to either a high-power condition or a low-power condition to see how their sense of power would influence their perspective-taking abilities. In the high-power condition, participants were primed to feel powerful by recalling an experience in which they held authority or control over others. In the low-power condition, participants recalled an experience in which they were subordinate or lacked control. After priming, the researchers tested how likely participants were to adopt another person’s visual perspective in a simple task. The results were striking: those in the high-power condition were significantly less likely to spontaneously adopt another person’s perspective compared to those in the low-power condition. In other words, feeling powerful seemed to reduce their natural tendency to see the world from another person’s viewpoint. This research has important implications for leadership and interpersonal dynamics in organizations. Leaders and individuals in positions of power may unknowingly become less attuned to the needs, beliefs, and intentions of those around them. This reduction in perspective-taking can make it difficult for them to build strong relationships, resolve conflicts, or make decisions that consider the well-being of others. For example, a manager who feels powerful may focus more on achieving their own goals, such as meeting deadlines or increasing profits, and may overlook the challenges or concerns of their team members. This disconnect can lead to misunderstandings, reduced morale, and a lack of trust within the team. The ability to take others' perspectives is crucial for effective leadership, as it fosters collaboration, understanding, and positive group dynamics. 10  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics Power and the Illusion of Control 1. The Psychological Effects of Power: Control and Optimism One of the intriguing psychological implications of power is that it often leads individuals to develop an illusion of personal control. Humans have a deep-rooted need to feel in control of their lives and futures. This sense of control is considered a fundamental human motive because it is highly adaptive. When people believe they can control their circumstances and outcomes, they tend to be more optimistic, have higher self-esteem, and approach challenges with confidence and determination. In contrast, when people feel powerless or out of control, they are more likely to experience feelings of helplessness, which can lead to depression, pessimism, and withdrawal from difficult situations. 2. Power and the Perception of Control Because power naturally stems from the control of valuable resources, it is reasonable to assume that those in power would also feel a strong sense of control over the people and outcomes connected to their authority. For example, a CEO has control over the organization’s resources, employees, and strategic decisions, which enhances their belief in their ability to shape the company’s future. Power gives individuals the ability to direct and influence others, reinforcing their sense of control. 3. The Illusory Sense of Control However, the psychological properties of power can lead to an overestimation of this control. Power holders may begin to develop an illusion of control, believing that they can influence outcomes that are actually beyond their reach. This phenomenon, known as illusory control, refers to the belief that one has the ability to influence events that are, in reality, determined by factors such as chance, randomness, or external forces. For instance, a powerful individual may believe they can sway an uncertain or unpredictable outcome simply 11  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics because they are accustomed to having control in other areas of their life. This illusion can lead power holders to take excessive risks or make decisions based on an inflated belief in their ability to shape the future. They may overestimate their capacity to predict or influence outcomes, resulting in poor decision-making, particularly in situations where the outcome is largely determined by luck or external circumstances beyond their control. 4. Implications of Illusory Control The illusion of control can have significant consequences in both personal and professional settings. For leaders, this inflated sense of influence can lead to overconfidence, resulting in flawed judgments, risky behavior, or the pursuit of unrealistic goals. It may also cause power holders to overlook or underestimate the importance of collaboration, input from others, or the role of external factors, which can lead to poor strategic decisions. Additionally, the illusion of control can create friction between power holders and their teams. When leaders believe they have greater control than they actually do, they may impose unrealistic expectations on their subordinates, leading to frustration, burnout, or dissatisfaction within the team. In extreme cases, this can create a toxic work environment where employees feel disempowered, undervalued, and unable to influence outcomes. Power and the Tendency to Ignore Advice 1. Power and Its Influence on Decision-Making One of the often-overlooked consequences of having power is a decreased willingness to seek or follow advice from others. While managers and leaders rarely make critical decisions in isolation, they typically receive input from advisors both within and outside their organizations. Despite the importance of this input, research shows that a person’s subjective sense of power can significantly influence how open they are to receiving and 12  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics acting on advice. The psychological experience of power can make individuals feel more confident in their own judgments, which often leads to a tendency to either avoid seeking advice or to disregard the advice they receive. 2. Low Power and Advice-Taking For individuals who feel they have little power, advice from others plays a crucial role in their decision-making process. People in lower-power positions are more likely to seek input from advisors and give more weight to the opinions of those with expertise. This makes sense—when individuals feel less confident or capable in their decision-making, they are more likely to rely on expert advice to compensate for their own uncertainty. This heightened sensitivity to expertise can lead low-power individuals to make decisions that are more informed and aligned with expert recommendations. 3. High Power and Advice Discounting Interestingly, the dynamic changes drastically when individuals feel powerful. Research shows that high-power decision-makers tend to discount advice, regardless of the source. Unlike low-power individuals, who are attuned to the difference between expert and novice advice, those with high levels of power show little distinction between the two. They are just as likely to ignore or devalue advice from experts as they are from novices. This can have significant consequences for organizational decision-making, as it means that power holders may miss out on critical insights or information that could improve the quality of their decisions. 4. The Role of Competition and Confidence Why do high-power individuals disregard advice, even from experts? One key reason is that people in powerful positions often feel competitive with those who have expertise. Instead of viewing expert advisors as valuable resources, they may see them as competitors, challenging their authority or knowledge. This competitive mindset can lead to enhanced self-confidence, which in turn leads to advice discounting. Essentially, power fosters overconfidence, making individuals less likely to recognize the value of input from others— particularly if that input comes from someone they view as a potential rival. 5. Implications for Organizational Decision-Making The tendency for high-power individuals to ignore advice, regardless of its source, can have serious consequences for organizations. Leaders who fail to listen to expert advisors may make poor decisions that could have been avoided with the right input. This is especially problematic in complex or high-stakes situations where no single individual, no matter how 13  MPW Class Notes Power and Politics powerful, has all the necessary information. By discounting advice from both experts and novices, power holders may miss out on valuable perspectives that could enhance decision- making and improve outcomes for the organization as a whole. Additionally, this advice- discounting behavior can lead to strained relationships within teams, as advisors may feel undervalued or disregarded. Over time, this can create a culture where individuals are less likely to share their insights, knowing that their input is unlikely to be considered. Power Takeaways 1. Expert Power 2. Reward Power 3. Referent Power 4. Legitimate or Positional Power 5. Coercive Power Power changes your psychology: Perspective taking, over- confidence, social cognition and behavior The focus of our Week 10 session was on discussing power, it’s bases and their relative effectiveness, how one rises to power, and what one can expect when he/she becomes powerful. Please supplement what you learned with insights on power from the textbook. 14