Motivation Notes PDF

Motivation: Concept, Importance, Content theories 1. Maslow’s need theory, 2. Alderfer's’ ERG theory 3. Mcclelland's theory of needs 4. Herzberg’s two-factor theory 5. McGregor's theory X & theory Y 6. Ouchi's theory Z P...

Motivation: Concept, Importance, Content theories 1. Maslow’s need theory, 2. Alderfer's’ ERG theory 3. Mcclelland's theory of needs 4. Herzberg’s two-factor theory 5. McGregor's theory X & theory Y 6. Ouchi's theory Z Process Theories 1. Adams equity theory, 2. Vroom's expectancy theory 3. Goal Setting Theory 4. Reinforcement Theory 5. Self-determination 6. Social learning 7. Porter & Lawler Model Job satisfaction Job enrichment Job enlargement CONTENT THEORIES: Answers the question- what motivates people? The focus is on human needs and desires that are internalised and give impetus to individual behaviour. A. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory (Abraham Maslow, Psychologist) (Need theory of motivation) Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a psychological motivational theory comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. The five levels of the hierarchy are physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization The theory highlights that people are driven by unmet needs. As lower level needs are satisfied, higher level needs emerge, reflecting a simplistic view of human motivation. Focuses on needs as the basis for motivation: it helps managers to realise that the need level of employees should be identified to provide motivation to them. Appraisal (critical evaluation) May not universally apply across different cultures; Surveys conducted in continental European countries and Japan suggest that managers in these regions do not align with the traditional hierarchy of needs. Cultural differences may play a significant role in shaping individuals’ perceptions of need satisfaction. Ex workers in Spain & Belgium felt their esteem needs were better fulfilled than their security and social needs, challenging Maslow’s sequence. In some contexts, such as lower level workers in countries like India, Maslow’s need hierarchy appears more applicable, as basic needs remain unmet. The hierarchy provides a foundation for theories like Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Theory. Limitations Every individual may have a different need hierarchy which may not follow the sequence suggested by Maslow. Individuals may prioritize self esteem or creativity over the need for love, reflecting diverse motivations and priorities. It is wrong to presume that only one need is satisfied at a time. A person’s behaviour at any time is guided by multiple motives. Satisfaction of needs may not necessarily diminish their motivating force, nor does it always trigger the activation of the next need in Maslow’s Hierarchy as proposed. 4-d, 5-b B. Alderfer's ERG theory (Clayton Paul Alderfer, American Psychologist)  Existence refers to an individual's concern with basic material and physiological existence requirements. Relatedness refers to the need for developing and sustaining interpersonal relationships. Growth refers to an individual's intrinsic need to be creative and to make useful and productive contributions, including personal development with opportunities for personal growth. Esteem needs can be divided into: 1. External Esteem: Seeking approval, recognition, and respect from others through achievements, status, or social validation. 2. Internal Esteem: Developing self-worth, confidence, and belief in one’s abilities, independent of external validation. ERG Theory Key Propositions:  1. Hierarchy of Needs: Needs transition from concrete (existence) to abstract (relatedness and growth). Satisfaction becomes more abstract as individuals progress. 2. Satisfaction and Progression: Satisfying lower-order needs reduces their importance, enabling individuals to focus on higher-order needs and goals. 3. Frustration and Regression: If higher-level needs remain unmet, individuals may regress to focusing on more basic needs. 4. Comparison to Maslow: Similar to Maslow’s hierarchy, progression occurs from basic to advanced needs, but ERG adds the concept of frustration-driven regression. C. McClelland's theory of needs Model of motivation based on 3 types of needs; Need for achievement- a drive to excel, advance and grow Need for power- a drive to influence people and situations Need for affiliation- a drive for friendly and close personal relationships McClelland’s research revealed that managers generally score higher in the need for achievement. D. Herzberg’s two-factor theory (Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene model)  Tried to answer the question- What do people want from their job? Herzberg's research on 200 engineers and accountants revealed that job dissatisfaction stems from the work environment, while job satisfaction comes from the job itself. He categorized these factors into two groups: maintenance factors (environment-related) and motivational factors (job-related). Maintenance/ dissatisfiers/ hygiene factors are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction among employees. These factors do not provide satisfaction to the employees, but their absence will dissatisfy them. Extrinsic to job Motivational factors are intrinsic to the job. Any increase in these factors will satisfy the employee, but a decrease in these factors will not cause dissatisfaction. One striking conclusion of Herzbergʼs theory is that one cannot achieve higher performance simply by improving wages and working conditions. Criticism Herzberg drew conclusions from a limited experiment covering engineers and accounts. In Herzbergʼs study, the interviewees were asked to report exceptionally good or exceptionally bad moments. This methodology is defective because there is a common bias among human-being to take more credit for good things and put the blame on others for bad things. Herzberg gave too much emphasis on job enrichment. But job enrichment is not the only answer. Off-the-job satisfaction of the workers is also very important. The theory focuses too much attention on satisfaction rather than performance level. The distinction between maintenance factors and motivating factors is not fixed. What maintenance factors (e.g., pay) for a worker in the United States may very much be a motivating factor for an Indian worker. E. McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y  Based on hypotheses relating to human behaviour; Describes the assumptions managers make about employees' behavior Theory X Under negative view, managers believe that employees inherently dislike work, and must be coerced or directed to perform it. Theory X suggests threats of punishment and strict control are the ways to manage people Carrot & stick approach Theory X is more applicable to unskilled and uneducated low - level workers. Theory Y Under positive view, managers believe that employees view work as natural as play or rest and people can be given the responsibility to work. Theory Y suggests that if people are properly motivated, they could really be creative. The main goal of management is to unleash the full potential of the employees. Theory Y is more applicable to skilled and educated employees who are mature enough and understand the responsibility. Management should use an amalgamation of both theories to motivate different kinds of employees at different levels in the organisation. F. Ouchi’s Z Theory William Ouchi developed Theory Z after making a comparative study of Japanese & American management practices. It suggests that the large complex organisations are human systems, and their effectiveness depends on the quality of humanism used. Theory Z is a hybrid system which incorporates the strength of American management (individual freedom, risk-taking, quick decision-making, etc.) and Japanese management (job security, group decision-making, social cohesion, holistic concern for employees, etc.) A type Z organisation has 3 major features Mutual trust between members of an organisation reduces conflict and leads to teamwork. Subtlety requires sensitivity towards others and yields higher productivity. Intimacy implies concern, support and disciplined unselfishness. PROCESS THEORIES provide an opportunity to understand the thought processes that influence behaviour. They examine individual behavior in terms of satisfaction related to perceived rewards (or lack of rewards) that initiate behaviour A. Adams Equity Theory (John Adams, 1963) Assumes that members of an organisation experience strong expectation of justice, balance, and fairness in treatment by an organisation. When a person feels that he is being treated unfairly by the organisation, it can have adverse effects on the person’s motivation. Two variables are important to study equity; Input & Outcome Input- time, effort, education, experience, training, ideas, ability Outcomes- pay, promotion, recognition, security, personal development, benefits, opportunities. Inputs are efforts put by an individual in his job and outcomes are rewards, which the member receives from the organization. Inputs and outcomes are compared to find out the state of equity or inequity among the individuals.Individuals compare their outcome-input ratio with relevant others. There are 4 referent groups people compare themselves with: Self Inside- An employee may compare his present position to a different position inside the same organization. Self Outside- An employee may compare his present situation to a situation or position outside the employeeʼs organization. Other Inside- Comparison with another individual inside the organization Other Outside- Comparison with another individual outside the organization Based on equity theory, employees who perceive inequality will make one of six choices: Change Input- The employee may choose to increase or decrease his inputs to the organization. Change Outcome- The employee may change his outcome by requesting a salary raise or asking for a bigger office. Distort Perception of self- Rather than changing inputs and outcomes, a person may change his perceptions of his own efforts. Distort perception of others- A person can try to restore equity by attempting to change perception of the comparison group. Choose a different referent for comparison i.e., find out another person as a comparison. Leave the field (quit the job) These corrective actions bring back the employee to a state of equity and provides him motivation to contribute to the organization. B. Vroom's Expectancy Theory This theory views motivation as a governing choice. According to Vroom's Expectancy Theory, people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors based on the expectation that their efforts will lead to desired outcomes and help them achieve their goals. Vroomʼs theory is built around the concepts of Valence, instrumentality and Expectancy. Valence means the value an individual attaches to work outcomes such as pay increase, promotion, etc. Positive valance- preferred outcome Negative valence- not preferred outcome Instrumentality is the association or correlation between job performance and desired outcome. Employees are motivated when they believe their performance is instrumental in achieving the desired outcome Expectancy means the probability that a particular action will lead to the desired outcome. Motivation (force) = Σ valance* instrumentality* expectancy C. Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke) and SMART Goals Goal-Setting Theory, developed by Edwin Locke, emphasizes that clear and challenging goals lead to higher performance. Goals provide focus, motivation, and direction, encouraging individuals to put in the effort and persist until objectives are achieved. For goals to be effective, they must be specific, challenging, and accompanied by feedback. SMART Goals is a framework that operationalizes goal-setting by ensuring that objectives meet the following criteria: Specific: Clearly defined and focused. Measurable: Includes criteria to track progress and success. Achievable: Realistic and attainable given the resources and constraints. Relevant: Aligned with organizational or personal priorities. Time-bound: Set within a defined timeframe. D. Reinforcement Theory (B.F. Skinner) Reinforcement Theory, developed by B.F. Skinner, focuses on how behavior is influenced by its consequences. It emphasizes that people are motivated to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and avoid those that are punished. This theory is widely applied in organizational settings to shape employee behavior through rewards and consequences. In order to reinforce the desired behaviour, 4 strategies can be followed Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding desirable behavior to encourage its repetition (e.g., bonuses for meeting targets). Negative Reinforcement: Removing unfavorable conditions to encourage behavior (e.g., reducing workload upon achieving efficiency). Punishment: Applying unfavorable consequences to discourage undesirable behavior (e.g., warnings for misconduct). Extinction: Removing reinforcement to reduce the occurrence of a behavior (e.g., ignoring disruptive behavior). E. Self-Determination Theory (Edward Deci and Richard Ryan) Self-Determination Theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, is a process theory of motivation that emphasizes the role of intrinsic and extrinsic factors in driving human behavior. The theory highlights how personal autonomy, competence, and social connection influence motivation and well-being. People tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment. 1. Autonomy: The need to feel in control of one’s own behavior and decisions. Example: Employees performing better when given freedom to choose how to complete tasks. 2. Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in one’s activities. Example: Providing skill development opportunities to employees enhances their confidence and motivation. 3. Relatedness: The need to feel connected and valued in relationships with others. Example: Fostering a supportive and collaborative work environment. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal satisfaction, like interest or passion for the activity itself. Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external rewards, such as money, promotions, or recognition. F. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) Social Learning Theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes that people learn behaviors not only through direct experience but also by observing others. It highlights the role of observation, imitation, and modeling in acquiring new skills, behaviors, and attitudes. Assumptions: Observational Learning: Individuals observe and imitate the behavior of others, especially role models. Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning occurs by observing the rewards and punishments others receive for their actions.  Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s own ability to succeed in specific situations plays a critical role in motivation and behavior. Reciprocal Determinism: Interaction between an individual’s behavior, environment, and personal factors shapes learning and development. G. Porter and Lawler’s Model of Motivation The Porter and Lawler model, developed by Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler, is a process theory of motivation that expands on Vroom's Expectancy Theory. It emphasizes that effort, performance, and rewards are interrelated and depend on multiple factors like individual abilities, role perception, and intrinsic/extrinsic rewards. Key Elements of the Model 1. Effort: The amount of energy an individual invests in their tasks. Effort depends on two factors: ○ Value of Rewards: How much the individual values the rewards. ○ Perceived Effort-Reward Probability: The individual's expectation that their effort will lead to desired rewards. 2. Performance: Performance depends on effort but is also influenced by: ○ Abilities and Traits: Skills, knowledge, and individual characteristics. ○ Role Perception: Understanding of what is required in the job or role. 3. Rewards: Performance results in two types of rewards: ○ Intrinsic Rewards: Intangible benefits like satisfaction, recognition, and personal growth. ○ Extrinsic Rewards: Tangible benefits like salary, bonuses, and promotions. 4. Satisfaction: ○ Satisfaction is determined by the individual’s perception of the fairness of the reward in relation to the effort. ○ If rewards meet or exceed expectations, satisfaction increases, reinforcing motivation. Process Flow: 1. Effort → Performance (via abilities and role perception). 2. Performance → Rewards (intrinsic and extrinsic). 3. Rewards → Satisfaction (dependent on perceived fairness). 4. Satisfaction reinforces motivation, creating a feedback loop. The process flow of motivation involves effort leading to performance through abilities and role perception, performance resulting in rewards (both intrinsic and extrinsic), rewards influencing satisfaction based on perceived fairness, and satisfaction reinforcing motivation, thereby creating a continuous feedback loop. Managers can motivate workers by identifying rewards valued by subordinates, setting clear and achievable performance goals, and ensuring rewards are promptly linked to successful performance. This fosters clarity and reinforces motivation effectively. Motivation is positive and negative Motivation is internal