The Connected Mind - Social Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

THE CONNECTED MIND Social Psychology PSY100 – Introduction to Psychology Department of Psychology SAN BEDA UNIVERSITY Social Psychology Social psychologists study social behavior - the ways people influence and are influenced by each other. It’s a diverse field incorporating the study...

THE CONNECTED MIND Social Psychology PSY100 – Introduction to Psychology Department of Psychology SAN BEDA UNIVERSITY Social Psychology Social psychologists study social behavior - the ways people influence and are influenced by each other. It’s a diverse field incorporating the study of attitudes and perceptions, persuasion, and typical behaviors of people in relationships with others. Social Perception and Cognition First impressions The primacy effect - the first information learned about someone will be a more powerful influence on our perceptions than any later information will be. Quick assessments on subset of traits and behaviors rather than summing up the entire person – i. e. faces most likely form impressions Halo effects occur when one characteristic or a small number of characteristics have a large impact on overall perception. Fast and persistent Social Perception and Cognition https://www.bing.com/videos/search? q=exploring+social+psychology&view=detail&mid=5CF2 A795FA4B7A35CBFD5CF2A795FA4B7A35CBFD&FORM=VI RE Social Perception and Cognition Attribution Attribution: the set of thought processes we use to explain behavior.  Internal or dispositional attributions are based on an individual’s perceived stable characteristics - attitudes, personality traits, or abilities. Social Perception and Cognition Attribution Attribution theory  External or situational attributions are explanations based on the current situation and events.  Lack of familiarity with culturally determined responses in other societies causes the attribution of externally influenced behaviors to dispositional qualities. Social Perception and Cognition Attribution Kelley proposed three sources of information for attributions:  Consensus information – how one individual’s behavior compares with others.  Consistency information – how the person’s behavior varies over time.  Distinctiveness – how the person’s behavior varies between situations. Social Perception and Cognition Correspondence bias – infer a person’s disposition from observed behavior, even when strong situational factors are obvious The fundamental attribution error – completely fail to consider situational variables while making attributions Defensive Attributions The actor-observer effect  We make situational attributions for our own behaviors and dispositional ones for the behavior of others.  We are more aware of how our own behavior varies across situations though we don’t consider that this may be true for others. Defensive Attributions Using attributions to control perceptions of ourselves To optimize our own perception of ourselves we use self- serving biases.  You attribute your victory in a tennis match to your extraordinary skill.  You attribute your failing mathematics to “unfair tests.”  Group-serving bias – attributing group success to dispositional causes, while attributing group failures to situational causes Defensive Attributions Using attributions to control perceptions of ourselves Self-handicapping strategies protect our self-image.  We intentionally create a disadvantage to provide an excuse for an expected failure.  Eating a whole pizza shortly before a swim meet with the current league champions.  Just-world belief – assuming that people get what they deserve  That homeless person doesn.t try hard enough to get off the streets. Social Perception and Cognition We are usually not fully aware of the reasons for other’s behavior, or our own. We make good guesses about both. Understanding the theories of social perception and cognition can help us to improve our accuracy. Attitudes and Behavior An attitude is a like or dislike that influences our behavior toward a person or thing. Persuasion is any attempt to change your attitudes (and your behavior.) Attitudes and Behavior Attitude Measurement Measuring attitudes and the effectiveness of persuasive techniques are challenging.  People answer questionnaires impulsively or misinterpret the questions.  Some hold conflicting or mixed attitudes about issues. Attitudes and Persuasion Cognitive Dissonance The classic study was done by Festinger and Carlsmith in 1959. Research shown consistently that cognitive dissonance effects our attitudes. Its effects on attitudes varies cross-culturally. Attitudes and Persuasion Cognitive Dissonance An individual’s behavior can change his or her attitudes.  A state of tension occurs when an individual holds contradictory attitudes on an issue, or has exhibited behavior that is inconsistent with an expressed attitude. Attitudes and Persuasion Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) – organizes and predicts our responses to persuasive messages by recognizing two major pathways leading to changes in attitudes. Routes of attitude change and persuasion In serious decision-making, people invest time and effort in evaluating the evidence and logic behind the message. This is the central route to persuasion. Attitudes and Persuasion Routes of attitude change and persuasion When contemplating a decision of relatively little importance, people are more attentive to superficial aspects such as the speaker’s appearance or the amount of evidence (instead of its quality.) This is the peripheral route to persuasion. Attitudes and Persuasion Highly resistant attitudes People’s attitudes fall on a continuum. Some attitudes are strongly held and only changed via the central route to persuasion. Others are more easily changed by the peripheral route. Some strongly held opinions are based on hardly any knowledge or evidence at all. “Facts? Don’t try to confuse me with the facts!” Attitudes and Persuasion Delayed influence of messages Messages may have no effect when first encountered, but change our attitudes later.  The Sleeper Effect - delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message.  Minority Influence - unpopular opinions eventually change majority attitudes. Attitudes and Persuasion Ways of presenting persuasive messages Two categories of persuasive messages:  Fulfill the request to make something good happen.  Fulfill the request to prevent something bad from happening (like chain letters and some internet hoaxes – they contain an implied threat). Attitudes and Persuasion Person variables:  Level of cognitive abilities  Importance of message  Mood Attitudes and Persuasion Situation variables:  Perceived similarity between the audience and speaker  Perception that idea is approved or endorsed by a respected group  Level of intelligence and interest Attitudes and Persuasion  Audience variables: Heightened resistance  What if people know they are about to hear an opposing argument?  Telling them will increase the likelihood that they’ll reject the argument - Forewarning Effect.  A weak version of an argument presented before a stronger version makes it more likely that the strong one gets rejected - Inoculation Effect. Attitudes and Persuasion Strategies of persuasion Common techniques of persuasion to know and resist!  A modest request is followed by a larger one - the foot-in-the-door technique.  An outrageous initial request is followed by a reasonable one - the door- in-the-face technique. Attitudes and Persuasion Strategies of persuasion  A favorable deal is followed by additional demands after a commitment has been made - the bait-and-switch technique.  The offer is improved before any reply is given - the that’s-not-all technique. Persuasion and Manipulation Life is full of decisions, both trivial and major. Understand and remember the techniques of persuasion that you have learned about in this module, for those who try to change your attitudes or behavior may not necessarily have your best interests at heart. Stereotypes and prejudices A stereotype is a generalized belief about group of people.  We remember unusual qualities or characteristics more readily than ordinary ones, forming false stereotypes easily.  Some are exaggerations of essentially correct observations. Stereotypes and prejudices Prejudice is an irrationally unfavorable (or favorable) attitude toward a group of people.  Aversive racism - the behavior of unintentionally discriminating against some groups while expressing the belief that all people are equal. Stereotypes and prejudices  People acknowledge that prejudice is a serious problem in the world, but deny being prejudiced.  Many people experience ambivalent sexism; an overt belief in equal treatment of the sexes with a hidden belief that women should be treated differently. Stereotypes and prejudices Implicit measures of stereotypes and prejudices Subtle, unintentional racism is difficult to measure. The Implicit Association Test, used for personality assessment, can also be used to detect subtle prejudice. Stereotypes and prejudices Overcoming prejudice Making groups in conflict talk does solve this problem.  Getting them to work towards a common goal is a more effective strategy. Cooperation and Competition https://www.bing.com/videos/search? q=cooperation+and+competition+video&view=detail&mid= 769C1FA6B05AC742AB96769C1FA6B05AC742AB96&FORM =VIRE Cooperation and Competition Altruism  Why at times do we compete with each other for resources while at other times we cooperate, engaging in altruistic behavior, (accepting some disadvantage to ourselves in order to help others?)  “It depends” Cooperation and Competition The prisoner’s dilemma A choice is presented between a cooperative act or one that is hurtful to others. In variants of the dilemma, people have great difficulty choosing the cooperative option, even though the selfish strategy might backfire. Cooperation and Competition The prisoner’s dilemma: “Tit for tat”  Cooperative strategies require some degree of individual recognition.  We prefer reciprocal altruism, to help others with the understanding that they should in turn help us.  We monitor those who hold their end of the bargain so we know with whom it is in our best interest to cooperate. Cooperation and Competition The Trust Game  Another exercise in which there are short-term rewards for competitive behavior but people may chose altruism, perhaps in hopes of gaining a reputation for being fair and helpful. Cooperation and Competition Cultural Transmission  We learn to cooperate instead of compete because other members of our community will punish us for not exhibiting some altruistic behavior.  The more cooperative the culture, the greater the punishment for failing be altruistic. Cooperation and Competition Accepting or denying responsibility toward others: Bystander helpfulness or apathy  Why do people fail to intervene during a crime or accident?  The presence of many people may create a diffusion of responsibility.  We believe that if there are others people present, someone else will help, so we do nothing. Cooperation and Competition Responsibility toward others Bystander helpfulness or apathy  Pluralistic ignorance is another explanation for this lack of action.  People assume in the absence of information that others have a different, better-informed opinion.  And they decide to say or do nothing. Cooperation and Competition Responsibility toward others  Social loafing is the tendency to “loaf” or to do less work in groups.  Its extent depends on members’ perceptions of each other’s ability levels.  The effects are greatest when the task is considered unimportant.  It is more rare in collectivist cultures. Is Cooperative Behavior Logical? People frequently help each other. It is still not clear whether this tendency evolved or is learned – or both. Maybe the explanation has been overlooked, or is not important. We all help others, often with no expectation of any benefit in return. Interpersonal Attraction Established lasting relationships  Proximity - we become friends with people who live near us and become familiar to us.  Mere exposure - the more often we see someone or something the more we start to like the person or thing.  The mere exposure effect won’t matter if we hate the person or thing. Interpersonal Attraction Established lasting relationships Similarity – we’re drawn to those who have the same background, attitudes, and interests. We choose people who confirm our self-concept and self-esteem. According to exchange or equity theories we seek people with whom we can make equitable transactions of goods and services. Interpersonal Attraction Special concerns in selecting a mate Physical attractiveness  Important to both sexes (despite reluctance to admit it).  Attractive people are generally treated better than others, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy confirming their good self-image. Interpersonal Attraction Special concerns in selecting a mate Physical attractiveness.  In other species attractiveness may be seen as an indicator of good health and good genes.  “Attractive” in most cultures is what is considered “normal” or “average-looking.”  Evidence for these hypotheses is mixed and should be interpreted with caution. Interpersonal Attraction Special concerns in selecting a mate Marriage is valued in our society as a crucial social institution and source of fulfillment, but a disturbing number of marriages end in divorce. Why is it difficult to have a satisfying and lasting marriage? Interpersonal Attraction Special concerns in selecting a mate  Characteristics of successful marriages:  Partners have similar attitudes and personalities.  The relationship is sexually satisfying.  They earn adequate income for their lifestyle.  The husband is proud of his job.  The wife wasn’t pregnant before the marriage.  The couple’s parents had successful marriages. Interpersonal Attraction Special concerns in selecting a mate Saving a troubled marriage:  The results of marriage counseling are not encouraging.  Usually one partner has given up before the counseling starts. Interpersonal Attraction Special concerns in selecting a mate  Marriage counselors give well-meaning advice that may not work.  Couples should be encouraged to treat each other with respect during periods of turmoil.  Every marriage has troubled times, and it is important to repair problems quickly when they arise. Choosing Your Partners Carefully Many people choose friends and spouses poorly. Your potential partner is trying to impress you and you are hoping to like him or her. The same dynamics of persuasion discussed earlier are at work – remain aware so you find someone you like and trust. Choosing Your Partners Carefully Humans crave contact with others; even mediocre company is better than none. In our important relationships, we need to know more about our companions. Fulfilling relationships require wise choices. Interpersonal Influence Other people influence us in two major ways: They give us information about situations. They set the norms – the rules about expected behavior. Interpersonal Influence Conformity  Maintaining or changing one’s behavior to match the behavior and expectations of others.  At first it was believed that people would conform in ambiguous situations.  Asch’s classic experiment demonstrated that conformity is likely even when the correct choice is clear. Interpersonal Influence Conformity Asch’s experiment has been done in other cultures. Cross-culturally behaviors are the same. The motivations expressed are somewhat different. For example Asian subjects said they did not wish to embarrass others in the group. Interpersonal Influence Conformity The need to conform may overwhelm our need to be correct or feel “right.” Size of group did not matter – it was as hard for a subject to disagree in a group of 3 as in a group of 13. Two people disagree more easily with the majority than one person did. Interpersonal Influence Conformity: Good and bad Conformity to socially beneficial rules is necessary for our survival as a species. It may also be vital, however, to resist that urge in situations where the human need for conformity overrides our ability to see the truth and take action to prevent destructive mistakes. Interpersonal Influence Obedience to Authority A surprising, disturbing study done at Stanford University in the 1970s by Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues provided evidence that people may change their behavior in response to assigned roles and follow outrageous and immoral orders. A simulated prison was established for two weeks. Interpersonal Influence Obedience to Authority The behavior of the students became so real and brutal, the study had to be called off after 6 days. When faced with such evidence, people say “I would never follow such immoral orders.” It is hard to know if that would be true outside of the situation. Behavior Traps Obedience to Authority Stanley Milgram tried to find out how realistic such a claim was. Almost three-quarters of Milgram’s participants followed orders to hurt someone if the situation demanded it. Variations were done, and although compliance could be lowered some of participants still “followed orders” regardless of situation. Interpersonal Influence Obedience to authority Experts predicted a different result for this experiment. They thought that only a few, very abnormal people would give the higher levels of shock. Interpersonal Influence Obedience to authority Some scientists and others refused to believe these results. Milgram’s career suffered because what he showed us was not comforting. Today’s ethical standards for experimentation would have prevented the Milgram and Zimbardo from doing their studies. Interpersonal Influence Group decision-making There are advantages to appointing committees to review evidence and make decisions, but there are also pitfalls to group decision-making processes. All of us are going to participate in group decision-making processes so it is useful to understand these problems. Interpersonal Influence Group decision-making Group polarization  If members of a group already have a strong opinion on a matter they will lean more strongly that way after discussion.  Discussion makes the group more extreme in its views rather than opening a dialogue on differing opinions. Interpersonal Influence Group decision-making Groupthink  Emerges in a group regardless of the level of cohesion.  Group members suppress doubts about an issue for fear of being ostracized.  Dominant members silence dissenters; sometimes dissenters fail to speak up at all. Interpersonal Influence Group decision-making Groupthink The decisions to invade the Bay of Pigs and to launch the space shuttle Challenger are famous examples.  To guard against groupthink, appoint a “devil’s advocate” whose presents opposing viewpoints. The Power of the Social Situation It is difficult to teach people to behave ethically when there’s strong pressure to conform. To discourage destructive behavior in people, we’d be well advised to consider changing the situation.