Module 4 Framework and Principle Behind Moral Disposition PDF

MODULE 4: FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLE BEHIND OUR MORAL DESPOSITION TOPICS: MORAL THEORIES ARISTOTLE ST. THOMAS AQUINAS KANT AND RIGHTS THEORIES UTILITARIANISM TOPIC 1: MORAL THEORIES MORAL THEORY A moral theory, then, explains why a certain action is wrong -...

MODULE 4: FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLE BEHIND OUR MORAL DESPOSITION TOPICS: MORAL THEORIES ARISTOTLE ST. THOMAS AQUINAS KANT AND RIGHTS THEORIES UTILITARIANISM TOPIC 1: MORAL THEORIES MORAL THEORY A moral theory, then, explains why a certain action is wrong -- or why we ought to act in certain ways. In short, it is a theory of how we determine right and wrong conduct. Also, moral theories provide the framework upon which we think and discuss in a reasoned way, and so evaluate, specific moral issues. THEORIES OF MORALITY 1. Moral Subjectivism Main Point: Moral Subjectivism is where right or wrong are determined by what you -- the subject -- just happens to think (or 'feel') is right or wrong. This is simply based on your personal assessment and judgment. 2. Cultural Relativism Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by the particular set of principles or rules the relevant culture just happens to hold at the time. This is also based on the idea that different people have different cultures that are why right or wrong is based on how one’s culture dictates morality. 3. Ethical Egoism Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by what is in your self-interest. Or, it is immoral to act contrary to your self-interest. 4. Divine Command Theory Main Point: Right and wrong come from the commands of God (or the gods) 5. Virtue Ethics Main Point: Right and wrong are characterized in terms of acting in accordance with the traditional virtues -- making a good person. This will be further discussed in the preceding chapters. 6. Feminist Ethics Main Point: Right and wrong are to be found in women's responses to the relationship of caring. 7. Utilitarianism Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by the overall goodness (utility) of the consequences of the action. 8. Kantian Theory Main Point: Right and wrong are determined by rationality, giving universal duties. 9. Contractarianism Main Point: The principles of right and wrong (or Justice) are those which everyone in society would agree upon in forming a social contract. TOPIC 2: ARISTOTLE The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote his Nicomachean Ethics with these questions in mind. For him, the ultimate purpose cannot be understood without understanding the place of reason in ordering one’s life. Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good, just like Plato’s proposition, but actually doing the good habitually. We become what we are not what we know but what we do. According to him, self-realization is the highest good attainable by man. Self-realization is termed as Eudaemonia or well-being or happiness. This happiness is not the same as possession of wealth or pleasure; while pleasure is good, it is not the ultimate good. Happiness is the natural outcome of the active exercise of functions. The full realization of functions refers to fulfilling, realizing, actualizing, and developing one’s nature with all its potentials. Eudaemonia is sought for its own sake. All other ends, such as wealth, health, power, are sought because they are perceived to be instrumental in one’s flourishing. It is, as the proper end of man, not some kind of inactive state but actually something that one does. For Aristotle, our chief good is not something we merely possess in mind but something that we continually actualize in practice. According to him, Eudaemonia is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.  A telos (from the Greek τέλος for "end", "purpose", or "goal") is an end or purpose, in a fairly constrained sense used by philosophers such as Aristotle. It is the root of the term "teleology", roughly the study of purposiveness, or the study of objects with a view to their aims, purposes, or intentions. THREEFOLD NATURE OF MAN Each of these must be fulfilled as the realization of each is accompanied by a state of pleasure and happiness. 1. Vegetative- it refers to the physical body which is cultivated by wholesome food and proper exercise. The body needs food, drink, work, and rest in order to survive and to keep oneself physically fit. 2. Sentient- Man as full of senses has sentient nature. Man’s sensual feelings and emotions must be fully developed through appropriate sex activity within the limit of his social conventions. One needs to make his feelings and emotions fine to satisfy his senses. 3. Rational- Human bearings are rational animals. the full realization of their vegetative and sentient nature keeps them longing for more lasting satisfaction. food and shelter cannot satisfy their thirst for self-realization. one develops his rational nature in the pursuit of scientific knowledge. philosophical truth, political activity, religious commitment, and creative, artistic endeavor. Therefore, for Aristotle, upon the realization of man’s highest nature, there is good, happiness. Determinant of Morality The doctrine of the golden mean is central in the self- realization ethics of Aristotle, especially in the full exercise of functions regarding the development of man’s vegetative and sentient nature. reason seeks the balanced course between too much and too little. Extremes and excesses are always evil, hence, to be avoided. TOPIC 3: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS St. Thomas’ philosophy began with the standpoint of faith. He is known to be one who Christianized the philosophy based on his theories and ways. His perspective presupposes the existence of God who is the author (source) and the goal (end) of all realities. According to him, there exists a natural law which is the interpretation of man from the Eternal Law. In his view, the source of the moral law is reason itself. in its operation, reason recognizes the basic principle “Do good and avoid evil”. He used the term synderesis to describe this inherent capacity of an individual to perceive what is good or bad. In short, the moral law is the dictates of the voice of reason, and this dictate is expressed in the principle that good must be done and evil must be avoided. The voice of reason is also called the conscience, in so far, the conscience refers to the immediate judgment of practical reason applying the general principle of morality. WHAT IS GOOD FOR ST. THOMAS? St. Thomas asserts that what is human good is which is suitable for and proper to human nature. Thus, whenever an act is suitable to human nature as such, then it is good and it must be done; whenever it is not proper to human nature, however, then it is evil and it must be avoided. So, human nature is the proximate norm of morality. In St. Thomas View, the good is built into human nature, to which we are directed by our natural inclinations: self-preservation, just dealings with others and the propagation of the species. Three Natural Inclinations of Man 1. Self-preservation. We are inclined to preserve our life. Self- destruction, first of all, is unnatural as far as St. Thomas is concerned. This urges us to care for our health, not to kill ourselves or put ourselves in danger. 2. Just dealings with others. Reason by nature leads us to treat others with the same dignity and respect that we accord ourselves. This is the basis of justice which arises out of human relations. Thus, any act of injustice is against human nature. 3. Propagation of the species. We are naturally inclined to perpetuate our species which is viewed as a natural good. We are obligated not to pervert this natural inclination. the reproductive organs are by nature designed to reproduce and to perpetuate the human species. And any intervention against such nature must be evil. Determinant of Morality 1. Object- the Act itself 2. Circumstances-are conditions which, when superadded to the nature of the moral act, will affect its morality. It answers the question of who, what, where, by what means, why, how and when? 3. End of the agent- The end here is taken in the sense of end or purpose of the agent or the doer.  TOPIC 4: KANT AND RIGHTS THEORIES Represent deontological ethics For him, a right action consists solely in an action that is ruled and justified by a rule or principle. It was the rational and autonomous conformity of one’s will to see right the universal moral law Foundations of Metaphysics of Morals explains the philosophical foundation of morality and moral actions. MORALITY Only thing that is good without qualification. Other goods like intelligence and health can be qualified, Good Will is good by virtue because it is the will to follow the Moral Law. THE NATURE OF IMPERATIVES Imperatives are commands FOR KANT THERE EXISTS 2: 1. HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES If you want, you ought. The ought or the duty is conditioned by your desires, wants and goals. Our goals are grounded in SELF-INTEREST 2. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES The general from of DO. (Unconditioned) For Kant, there is only one imperative command and it is the Moral Law. Divided in 2 formulations  TOPIC 5: UTILITARIANISM Utilitarianism is a theory about: What is of highest importance in life. What makes actions right or wrong JOHN STUART MILL One of the great philosopher of the 19th century. Utilitarianism is his famous ethical theory. It is a theory about right and wrong. At the age of 3 being home school by very ambitious father. He started to learn Greek. Passionate and talented man. He had 5 younger siblings and he was home school and he had to teach everything he learned to those 5 younger siblings. According to Mill, HAPPINESS or PLEASURE is of highest value. UTILITARIANISM Ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing on outcomes. Holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. Also the most common approach to moral reasoning used in business because of the way in which it accounts for costs and benefits. However, because we cannot predict the future, it’s difficult to know with certainty whether the consequences of our actions will be good or bad. Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for values such as justice and individual rights. 3 CORE ELEMENTS OF MILL’S UTILITARIANISM 1. The Utility Principle “pleasure and freedom from pain are the only things desirable as ends” – they are the only intrinsic goods. 2. The Greatest Happiness Principle (consequentialist principle) “actions are right in proportion as they tend to produce happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. 3. Happiness = pleasure + absence of pain Unhappiness = pain + absence of pleasure The focus of these core elements is the second one, Mill thinks that it is the fundamental moral principle. ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM We can apply the principle of utility to either PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL RULES. The former is called "act-utilitarianism" and the latter is called "rule-utilitarianism." Act-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about the best results (or the least amount of bad results). Criticisms of this viewpoint to the difficulty of attaining full knowledge and certainty of the consequences of our actions. It is possible to justify immoral acts using AU: Suppose you could end a regional war by torturing children whose fathers are enemy soldiers, thus revealing the hideouts of the fathers. Rule-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct (moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the consequences of a world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which promises were binding. Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking those rules. Some criticisms of this position point out that if the Rules take into account more and more exceptions, RU collapses into AU. More general criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to generate "unjust rules" according to the principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an overall achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some mistreated individuals.