module-10-bam-199.docx

**MODULE \#10** **MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS** produce **standardized products in large volumes.** - - - **THREE BASIC COMPONENTS:** 1. **INPUTS** - raw materials of parts that will be used in the manufacturing process. 2. **PROCESSES** - the methods and techniques used to transform the I...

**MODULE \#10** **MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS** produce **standardized products in large volumes.** - - - **THREE BASIC COMPONENTS:** 1. **INPUTS** - raw materials of parts that will be used in the manufacturing process. 2. **PROCESSES** - the methods and techniques used to transform the I puts into the desired output. 3. **OUTPUTS** - the products or services that are created as a result of the manufacturing process. **WHAT IS ITS FUNCTION?** The manufacturing system is responsible for the production of goods and materials. It is a complex system that involves the coordination of resources, machines, and workers in order to produce finished products. **A WELL-MANUFACTURING SYSTEM IS IMPORTANT FOR A VARIETY OF REASONS, SUCH AS:** - Ensure that products are of high quality and meet customer expectations - Improve efficiency and productivity, leading to lower costs and increased profits - Help create jobs and support economic growth **SERVICE SYSTEMS** present more uncertainty concerning both capacity and costs. - - **GENERAL STRUCTURE OF QUEUING SYSTEMS** **The elements of a system are:** **1. Arrival process:** **The arrivals from the input population may be classified on a different basis as follows:** a. **According to source:** The source of customers for a queuing system can be infinite or finite. For example, all people of a city or state (and others) could be potential customers at a super bazaar. b. **According to numbers:** The customers may arrive for service individually or in groups. Single arrivals are illustrated by customers visiting a beautician, students reaching a library counter, and so on. On the other hand, families visiting restaurants, and ships discharging cargo at a dock are examples of bulk, or batch, arrivals. **(c) According to the line:** Customers may arrive in the system at known (regular or otherwise)\' times, or they might arrive randomly. The queuing models wherein customers\' arrival times are known with certainty are categorized as deterministic models (insofar as this characteristic is concerned) and are easier to handle. On the other hand, a substantial majority of the queuing models are based on the premise that the customers enter the system stochastically, at random points in time. 2. **Service system:** There are two aspects of a service system- (a) structure of the service system, and (b) the speed of service. a. **Structure of the service system:** By structure of the service system we mean how the service facilities exist. There are several possibilities. For example, there may be i. A single service facility A library counter is an example of this. The models that involve a single service facility are called **single server models**.  ii. **Multiple, parallel facilities with single queue:** That indicates there is more than one server. The term parallel implies that each server provides the same type of facility. Booking at a service station that has several mechanics, each handling one vehicle, illustrates this type of model. iii. **Multiple, parallel facilities with multiple queues:** This type of model is different from the earlier one only in that each of the servers has a different queue. Different cash counters in an electricity office where the customers can make payments in respect of their electricity bills is an example of this type of model.  iv. **Service facilities in a series:** In this, a customer enters the first station and gets a portion of service and then moves on to the next station, gets some service, and then again moves on to the next station\... and so on, and finally leaves the system, having received the complete service. For example, the machining of a certain steel item may consist of cutting, turning, knurling, drilling, grinding, and packaging operations, each of which is performed by a single server in a series. **(b) Speed of service:** In a queuing system, the speed with which service is provided can be expressed in either of two ways-as service rate and as service time. The service rate describes the number of customers serviced during a particular period. The service time indicates the amount of time needed to service a customer. Service rates and times are reciprocals of each other and either of them is sufficient to indicate the capacity of the facility. 3. **Queue structure:** Another element of a queuing system is the queue structure. In the queue structure, the important thing to know is the queue discipline which means the order by which customers are picked up from the waiting line for service. There are several possibilities. **(a) First-come-first-served:** When the order of service of customers is in the order of their arrival, the queue discipline is of the first-come-first-served type. For example, with a queue at the bus stop, the people who came first will board the bus first. **(b) Last-come-first-served:** Sometimes, the customers are serviced in an order reverse of the order in which they enter so that the ones who join last are served first. For example, assume that letters to be typed, or order forms to be processed accumulate in a pile, with each new addition being put on the top of them. The typist or the clerk might process these letters or orders by taking each new task from the top of the pile. Thus, a just-arriving task would be the next to be serviced provided that no fresh task arrives before it is picked up. Similarly, the people who join an elevator last are the first ones to leave it **(c) Service-in-random-order (SIRO):** Random order of service is defined as. whenever a customer is chosen for service, the selection is made in a way that every customer in the queue is equally likely to be selected. The time of arrival of the customers is, therefore, of no consequence in such a case. **(d) Priority service:** The customers in a queue might be rendered service on a priority basis. Thus, customers may be called according to some identifiable characteristic (length of job, for example) for service. Treatment of VIPs in preference to other patients in a hospital is an example in point. **Operating Characteristics of Queuing System** An analysis of a given queuing system involves a study of its different operating characteristics. This is done using queuing models. Some of the more commonly considered characteristics are discussed below: **1. Queue length**-the average number of customers in the queue waiting to get service. Large queues may indicate poor server performance while small queues may imply too much server capacity. **2. System length**-the average number of customers in the system, those waiting to be and those being serviced. Large values of this statistic imply congestion and possible customer dissatisfaction and a potential need for greater service capacity, **3. Waiting time in the queue**-the average time that a customer has to wait in the queue to get service. Long waiting times are directly related to customer dissatisfaction and potential loss of future revenues, while very small waiting times may indicate too much service capacity. **4. Total time in the system**-the average time that a customer spends in the system, from entry in the queue to completion of service. Large values of this statistic are indicative of the need to make adjustment in the capacity. **5. Server idle time**-the relative frequency with which the service system is idle, Idle time is directly related to cost. However, reducing idle time may have adverse effects on the other characteristics mentioned above. **LO2: Integrate ways of defining design capacity and system capacity.** **Production systems design** involves planning for the **inputs, transformation activities, and outputs of a production operation**. Design plays a major role because they entail significant investment of funds and establish cost and productivity patterns that continue in future. The capacity of the manufacturing unit can be expressed in *number of units of output per period*. In some situations, measuring capacity is more complicated when they manufacture multiple products. In such situations, the capacity is expressed as man-hours or machine hours.  **DESIGN CAPACITY** The designed capacity of a facility is the planned or engineered rate of output of goods or services under normal or full-scale operating conditions. For example, the designed capacity of the cement plant is 100 TPD (Tonnes per day). The capacity of the sugar factory is 150 tonnes of sugarcane crushing per day. The uncertainty of future demand is one of the most perplexing problems faced by new facility planners. **SYSTEM/EFFECTIVE CAPACITY** System capacity is the maximum output of the specific product or product mix the system of workers and machines is capable of producing as an integrated whole. System capacity is less than design capacity or at the most equal it because of the limitation of product mix, quality specification, and breakdowns. The actual is even less because of many factors affecting the output such as actual demand, downtime due to machine/equipment failure, unauthorized absenteeism. **These different measures of capacity are useful in defining two measures of system effectiveness:** - - **MODULE \#11** **Design of the production system** involves planning for the inputs, conversion process, and outputs of production operation. The effective management of capacity is the most important responsibility of production management. The objective of capacity management (i.e. planning and control of capacity) is to match the level of operations to the level of demand. **Capacity planning** is to be carried out keeping in mind future growth and expansion plans, market trends, sales forecasting, etc. It is a simple task to plan the capacity in case of stable demand. But in practice, the demand will be seldom stable. The fluctuation of demand creates problems regarding the procurement of resources to meet customer demand. Capacity decisions are strategic in nature. Capacity is the rate of productive capability of a facility. Capacity is usually expressed as the volume of output per period. **Production managers are more concerned about the capacity for the following reasons:** - - - - **Capacity planning** is the first step when an organization decides to produce more or new products. **Capacity requirement planning (CRP)** is a technique that determines what equipment and labor/personnel capacities are required to meet the production objectives (i.e., the volume of products) as per the master production schedule and **material requirement planning (MRP-I).** **Capacity Requirement Planning Strategies:** **Two types of capacity planning strategies used are:** i. \"Level capacity\" plan and ii. "Matching capacity with demand\" plan. **\"Level Capacity Plan\"** is based on **\"produce-to-stock and sell\"** approaches wherein the production systems are operated at uniform production levels and finished goods inventories rise and fall depending on whether production level exceeds demand or vice versa from period to period (say every quarter). **\"Matching capacity with demand plan\"** production capacity is matched with the demand in each period (weekly, monthly, or quarterly demand). Usually, material flows and machine capacity are changed from quarter to quarter to match the demand. The main advantages are low levels of finished goods inventory resulting in lesser inventory carrying costs. Also, the back-ordering cost is reduced. The disadvantages are high labor and material costs because of frequent changes in the workforce (hiring, training, and lay-off costs, overtime or idle time costs, or subcontracting costs). **Capacity planning** is concerned with defining the long-term and short-term capacity needs of an organization and determining how those needs will be satisfied. Capacity planning decisions are taken based upon consumer demand and this is merged with the human, material, and financial resources of the organization **Capacity requirements can be evaluated from two perspectives:** - - **LONG-TERM CAPACITY STRATEGIES** are more difficult to determine because the future demand and technology are uncertain. Forecasting for five or ten years into the future is riskier and difficult. Even sometimes company\'s today\'s products may not be existing in the future. Long-range capacity requirements are dependent on marketing plans, product development and life-cycle of the product. Long-term capacity planning is concerned with accommodating major changes that affect overall level of the output in long-term. Marketing environmental assessment and implementing the long-term capacity plans in a systematic manner are the major responsibilities of management. **Following parameters will affect long-range capacity decisions:** **Multiple products:** Company\'s produce more than one product using the same facilities in order to increase the profit. The manufacturing of multiple products will reduce the risk of failure. Having more than on product helps the capacity planners to do a better job. **Phasing in capacity:** In high technology industries, and in industries where technology developments are very fast, the rate of obsolescence is high. The products should be brought into the market quickly. The time to construct the facilities will be long and there is no much time, as the products should be introduced into the market quickly. **Phasing out capacity:** The outdated manufacturing facilites cause excessive plant closures and down time. The impact of closures is not limited to only fixed costs of plant and machinery. Thus, the phasing out here is done with humanistic way without affecting the community. The phasing out options makes alternative arrangements for men like shifting them to other jobs or to other locations, compensating the employees, etc. **SHORT-TERM CAPACITY STRATEGIES** Managers often use forecasts of product demand to estimate the short-term workload the facility must handle. Managers looking ahead up to 12 months, anticipate output requirements for different products, and services. Managers then compare requirements with existing capacity and then take decisions as to when the capacity adjustments are needed. Capital-intensive processes depend on physical facilities, plant and equipment. Short-term capacity can be modified by operating these facilities more or less intensively than normal. In labor intensive processes short-term capacity can be changed by laying off or hiring people or by giving overtime to workers. The strategies for changing capacity also depend upon how long the product can be stored as inventory. **The short-term capacity strategies:** **1. Inventories:** Stock finished goods during slack periods to meet the demand during peak period **2. Backlog:** During peak periods, the willing customers are requested to wait and their orders are fulfilled after a peak demand period. **3. Employment level (hiring or firing):** Hire additional employees during peak demand period and lay off employees as demand decreases **4. Employee training:** Develop multi skilled employees through training so that they can be rotated among different jobs. The multi skilling helps as an alternative to hiring employees. **5 Subcontracting:** During peak periods, hire the capacity of other firms temporarily to make the component parts or products. **6. Process design:** Change job contents by redesigning the job **LO2: Synthesize the Importance of capacity decisions**. 1. Capacity decisions have a real impact on the ability of the organization to meet future demands for products and services; capacity essentially limits the rate of output possible Having capacity to satisfy demand can allow a company to take advantage of tremendous opportunities. 2. Capacity decisions affect operating costs. Ideally, capacity and demand requirements will be matched, which will tend to minimize operating costs. In practice, this is not always achieved because actual demand either differs from expected demand or tends to vary (e.g.. cyclically). In such cases, a decision might be made to attempt to balance the costs of over and under capacity. 3\. Capacity is usually a major determinate of initial cost. Typically, the greater the capacity of a productive unit, the greater its cost. This does not necessarily imply a one for-one relationship, larger units tend to cost proportionately less than smaller units. 4\. Capacity decisions often involve long-term commitment of resources and the fact that, once they are implemented, it may be difficult or impossible to modify those decisions without Incurring major costs. 5\. Capacity decisions can affect competitiveness. If a firm has excess capacity, or can quickly add capacity, that fact may serve as a barrier to entry by other firms. Then too, capacity can affect delivery speed, which can be a competitive advantage. 6\. Capacity affects the ease of management; having appropriate capacity makes management easier than when capacity is mismatched. **MODULE \#13** **Plant location** may be understood as the function of determining where the plant should be located for maximum operating economy and effectiveness. - The selection of a place for locating a plant is one of the problems, perhaps the most important, which is faced by an entrepreneur while launching a new enterprise. - A selection on purely economic considerations will ensure an easy and regular supply of raw materials, labor force, efficient plant layout, proper utilization of production capacity, and reduced cost of production. - An ideal location may not, by itself, guarantee success; but it certainly contributes to the smooth and efficient working of an organization. - A bad location, on the other hand, is a severe handicap for any enterprise and it finally bankrupts it. - It is, therefore, very essential that utmost care should be exercised in the initial stages to select a proper place. Once a mistake is made in locating a plant it becomes extremely difficult and costly to correct it. **Steps in Location Selection** To be systematic, in choosing a plant location, the entrepreneur would do well to proceed step by step, the steps be: 1\. Within the country or outside; 2\. Selection of the region; 3\. Selection of the locality or community; 4\. Selection of the exact site **LO1: DISCUSS THE NEED FOR SELECTING A SUITABLE LOCATION**  I. **In Case of Location Choice for the First Time or New Organizations** Cost economies are always important while selecting a location for the first time, but should keep in mind the cost of long-term business/organizational objectives. The following are the factors to be considered while selecting the location for the new organization: 1. 2. **II. In Case of Location Choice for Existing Organization** In this case a manufacturing plant has to fit into a multi-plant operations strategy. That is, additional plant location in the same premises and elsewhere under following circumstances: **1. Plant manufacturing distinct products.** Each plant services the entire market area for the organization. This strategy is necessary where the needs of technological and resource inputs are specialized or distinctively different for the different product-lines. **2. Manufacturing plant supplying to specific market area.** Here, each plant manufactures almost all of the company\'s products. This type of strategy is useful where market proximity consideration dominates the resources and technology considerations. This strategy requires great deal of coordination from the corporate office. An extreme example of this strategy is that of soft drinks bottling plants. **3. Plant divided on the basis of the process or stages in manufacturing.** Each production process or stage of manufacturing may require distinctively different equipment capabilities, labor skills, technologies, and managerial policies and emphasis. Since the products of one plant feed into the other plant, this strategy requires much centralized coordination of the manufacturing activities from the corporate office that are expected to understand the various technological aspects of all the plants. **4. Plants emphasizing flexibility.** This requires much coordination between plants to meet the changing needs and at the same time ensure efficient use of the facilities and resources. Frequent changes in the long-term strategy in order to improve be efficiently temporarily, are not healthy for the organization. In any facility location problem, the central question is: \'Is this a location at which the company can remain competitive for a long time?\' **III.In the Case of Global Location** **1. Virtual Proximity** With the advances in telecommunications technology, a firm can be in virtual proximity to its customers. For a software services firm, much of its logistics is through the information/ communication pathway. Many firms use the communications highway for conducting a large portion of their business transactions. Logistics is certainly an important factor in deciding on a location-whether in the home country or abroad. Markets have to be reached. Customers have to be contacted. Hence, a market presence in the country of the customers is quite necessary. **2. Virtual Factory** Many firms based abroad in the service sector and the manufacturing sector often outsource part of their business processes to foreign locations such as the Philippines. Thus, instead of one\'s operations, a firm could use its business associates\' operations facilities. **REASONS FOR A GLOBAL/FOREIGN LOCATION** **A. Tangible Reasons** The tangible reasons for setting up an operations facility abroad could be as follows: **Reaching the customer:** One obvious reason for locating a facility abroad is that of capturing a share of the market and expanding worldwide. **B. Intangible Reasons** The intangible reasons for considering setting up an operations facility abroad could be as follows: **1. Customer-related Reasons** i. ii. iii\. The firm may interact more intimately with its customers and may thus understand their requirements better. iv\. It may also discover other potential customers in the foreign location. **2. Organizational Learning-related Reasons** i\. The firm can learn advanced technology. For example, it is possible that cutting-edge technologies can be learned by having operations in a technologically more advanced country. The firm can learn from advanced research laboratories/universities in that country. Such learning may help the entire product line of the company. ii\. The firm can learn from its customers abroad. A physical location there may be essential for this goal. iii\. It can also learn from its competitors operating in that country. For this reason, it may have to be physically present where the action is. iv\. The firm may also learn from its suppliers abroad. If the firm has a manufacturing plant there, it will have intensive interaction with the suppliers in that country from whom there may be much to learn in terms of modern and appropriate technology, modern management methods, and new trends in business worldwide. **3. Other Strategic Reasons** i\. The firm by being physically present in the host country may gain some local boy kind of psychological advantage. The firm is no more a \'foreign\' company just sending its products across international borders. This may help the firm in lobbying with the government of that country and with the business associations in that country. ii\. The firm may avoid \'political risk by having operations in multiple countries. iii\. By being in a foreign country, the firm can build alternative sources of supply. The firm could, thus, reduce its supply risks. iv\. The firm could hunt for human capital in different countries by having operations in those countries. Thus, the firm can gather the best of people from across the globe. v\. Foreign locations in addition to the domestic locations would lower the market risks for the firm. If one market goes slow the other may be doing well, thus lowering the overall risk. **FACTORS INFLUENCING PLANT LOCATION/FACILITY LOCATION** is the process of determining a geographic site for a firm\'s operations. - It is appropriate to divide the factors, which influence the plant location or facility location based on the nature of the organization as: **1. General locational factors;** which include controllable and uncontrollable factors for all types of organizations. **2. Specific locational factors;** are specifically required for manufacturing and service organizations. **General Locational Factors:** **Following are the general factors required for the location of the plant in the case of all types of organizations.** **CONTROLLABLE FACTORS** 1\. Proximity to markets 2\. Supply of materials 3\. Transportation facilities 4\. Infrastructure availability 5\. Labor and wages 6\. External economies 7\. Capital **UNCONTROLLABLE FACTORS** 8\. Government policy 9\. Climate conditions 10 Supporting industries and services 11\. Community and labor attitudes 12\. Community Infrastructure. **Specific Locational Factors for Manufacturing Organisation:** **DOMINANT FACTORS** Factors dominating location decisions for new manufacturing plants can be broadly classified into six groups. They are listed in the order of their importance as follows. 1\. Favorable labor climate 2\. Proximity to markets 3\. Quality of life 4\. Proximity to suppliers and resources 5\. Utilities, taxes, and real estate costs **SECONDARY FACTORS** Some other factors need to be considered, including room for expansion, construction costs, accessibility to multiple modes of transportation, the cost of shuffling people and materials between plants, competition from other firms for the workforce, community attitudes, and many others. For global operations, firms are emphasizing local employee skills and education, and the local infrastructure. **LO2: Explain the objectives of plant layout.** **Plant layout** refers to the physical arrangement of production facilities. - - According to **Moore** \"Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement of facilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling equipment and all other supporting services along with the design of best structure to contain all these facilities\". **Objectives of Plant Layout** The primary goal of the plant layout is to maximize the profit by arrangement of all the plant facilities to the best advantage of total manufacturing of the product. The objectives of plant layout are: 1\. Streamline the flow of materials through the plant. 2\. Facilitate the manufacturing process. 3\. Maintain high turnover of in-process inventory. 4\. Minimize materials handling and cost. 5\. Effective utilization of men, equipment, and space. 6\. Make effective utilization of cubic space. 7\. Flexibility of manufacturing operations and arrangements. 8\. Provide for employee convenience, safety, and comfort. 9\. Minimize investment in equipment. 10\. Minimize overall production time. 11\. Maintain flexibility of arrangement and operation. 12\. Facilitate the organizational structure. **MODULE \#14** **LO1: Differentiate classification of layouts.** **LAYOUT** It refers to the configuration of departments, work centers, and equipment, with particular emphasis on movement of work (customers or materials) through the system. - **Why layout decisions are important?** - they require substantial investments of money and effort - they involve long-term commitments which makes mistakes difficult to overcome - they have significant impact on the cost and efficiency of operations **LAYOUT DESIGNS** **Basic objective:** to facilitate a smooth flow of work, material, and information through the system **Supporting objectives**: ✓ Facilitate product or service quality ✓ Use workers and space efficiently ✓Avoid bottlenecks ✓Minimize material handling costs ✓ Eliminate unnecessary movement of workers or material ✓Minimize production time or customer service time ✓ Design for safety PRODUCT LAYOUTS It is a layout that uses standardized processing operations to achieve smooth, rapid, high-volume flow. - -  **Advantages:** - High rate of output - Low unit cost - Labor specialization - Low material handling cost per unit - High utilization of labor and equipment **Disadvantages:** - Creates dull, repetitive jobs - Poorly skilled workers may not maintain equipment or quality of output - Fairly inflexible to changes in volume or product or process design **PROCESS LAYOUTS** These are layouts that can handle varied processing requirements. These are used for **intermittent processing** - a discontinuous workflow. This is applicable to **job shop and batch processing**. These are occasionally called as **functional layouts** because the process is designed such that operations of similar nature or function are grouped together. An example of process layout in a manufacturing environment is a machine shop, which has separate departments for milling, grinding, drilling, and so on. Figure 4 illustrates the departmental arrangement typical of a process layout. These types of layout are also quite common in service environments such as hospitals, colleges and universities, banks, auto repair shops, airlines, and public libraries.  **Advantages:** - Can handle a variety of processing requirements - Not particularly vulnerable to equipment failures - General-purpose equipment is often less costly and easier and less costly to maintain - It is possible to use individual incentive systems **Disadvantages:** - In-process inventories can be high Routing and scheduling pose continual challenges - Equipment utilization rates are low Material handling is slow and inefficient - Reduced spans of supervision - Special attention necessary for each product or customer - Accounting, inventory control, and purchasing are more involved **MODULE \#15** **LO1: Compare what is a service layout to other layout types, and draw a service layout.** **Service facility layouts** should provide for easy entrance to these facilities from the freeways. Well-organized packing areas, easily accessible facilities, well designed walkways and parking areas are some of the requirements of service facility layout. - **A facility layou**t is defined as the arrangement of machinery, equipment and I other. amenities in a facility to ensure the smooth movement of materials.  **ORGANISATION OF PHYSICAL FACILITIES** The following are the most important physical facilities to be organized: 1\. Factory building 2\. Lighting 3\. Climatic conditions 4\. Ventilation 5\. Work-related welfare facilities I. **FACTORY BUILDING** is a factor which is the most important consideration for every industrial enterprise. - - - Following factors are considered for an Industrial Building: A. Design of the building. B. Types of buildings **A. Design of the Building** The building should design so as to provide a number of facilities such as lunch rooms, cafeteria, locker rooms, crèches, libraries, first-aid and ambulance rooms, materials handling facilities, heating, ventilation, air- conditioning, etc. Following factors are considerations in the designing of a factory building: **1. Flexibility:** is one of the important considerations because the building is likely to become obsolete and provides greater operating efficiency even when processes and technology change. - **2. Product and equipment:** The type of product that is to be manufactured, determines column-spacing, type of floor, ceiling, heating and air-conditioning. - 3. - \(i) The area of the land which is to be acquired should be large enough to provide for the future expansion needs of the firm and accommodate current needs. \(ii) The design of the building should be in a rectangular shape. Rectangular shapes facilitate expansion on any side. \(iii) If vertical expansion is expected, strong foundations, supporters and columns must be provided. \(iv) If horizontal expansion is expected, the side walls must be made non-load-bearing to provide for easy removal. **4. Employee facilities and service area:** **Employee facilities** must find a proper place in the building design because they profoundly affect the morale, comfort and productivity. The building plan should include facilities for lunch rooms, cafeteria, water coolers, parking area and the like. The provision of some of these facilities is a legal requirement. Others make good working conditions possible. And a good working condition is good business.**Service areas**, such as the tool room, the supervisor\'s office, the maintenance room, receiving and dispatching stations, the stock room and facilities for scrap disposal, should also be included in the building design. **B. Types of Buildings Industrial buildings may be grouped under three types:** 1\. Single-storey buildings, 2\. Multi-storey buildings 1. - - 2. - **II. LIGHTING** It is estimated that 80 per cent of the information required in doing job is perceived visually. Good visibility of the equipment, the product and the data involved in the work process is an essential factor in accelerating production, reducing the number of defective products, cutting down waste and preventing visual fatigue and headaches among the workers. It may also be added that both inadequate visibility and glare are frequently causes accidents **III. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS** Control of the climatic conditions at the workplace is paramount importance to the workers health and comfort and to the maintenance of higher productivity. With excess heat or cold, workers may feel very uncomfortable, and their efficiency drops. In addition, this can lead to accidents. **IV. VENTILATION** is the dynamic parameter that complements the concept of air space. For a given number of workers, the smaller the work premises the more should be the ventilation. Ventilation differs from air circulation. Ventilation replaces contaminated air by fresh air, whereas as the air-circulation merely moves the air without renewing it. Where the air temperature and humidity are high, merely to circulate the air is not only ineffective but also Increases heat absorption, Ventilation disperses the heat generated by machines and people at work. Adequate ventilation should be looked upon as an important factor in maintaining the worker\'s health and productivity. **V. WORK-RELATED WELFARE FACILITIES** offered at or through the workplace can be important factors. Some facilities are very basic, but often ignored, such as drinking-water and toilets. Others may seen less necessary, but usually have an importance to workers far greater than their cost to the enterprise. **1. DRINKING WATER** Safe, cool drinking water is essential for all types of work, especially in a hot environment Without it fatigue increases rapidly and productivity falls. Adequate drinking water should be provided and maintained at convenient points, and clearly marked as \"Safe drinking water. Where possible it should be kept in suitable vessels, renewed at least daily, and all practical steps taken to preserve the water and the vessels from contamination. **2. SANITARY FACILITIES** Hygienic sanitary facilities should exist in all workplaces. They are particularly important where chemicals or other dangerous substances are used. Sufficient toilet facilities, with separate facilities for men and women workers, should be installed and conveniently located. Changing rooms and cloakrooms should be provided. Washing facilities, such as washbasins with soap and towels, or showers, should be placed either within changing- rooms or close by. **3. FIRST-AID AND MEDICAL FACILITIES** Facilities for rendering first-aid and medical care at the workplace in case of accidents or unforeseen sickness is directly related to the health and safety of the workers. First-aid boxes should be clearly marked and conveniently located. They should contain only first- aid requisites of a prescribed standard and should be in the charge of qualified person. Apart from first-aid boxes, it is also desirable to have a stretcher and suitable means to transport injured persons to a center where medical care can be provided. **4. REST FACILITIES** can include seat, rest-rooms, waiting rooms and shelters. They help workers to recover from fatigue and to get away from a noisy, polluted or isolated workstation. A sufficient number of suitable chairs or benches with backrests should be provided and maintained, including seats for occasional rest of workers who are obliged to work standing up. Rest-rooms enable workers to recover during meal and rest breaks. **5. FEEDING FACILITIES** It is now well recognized that the health and work capacity of workers to have light refreshments are needed. A full meal at the workplace in necessary when the workers live some distance away and when the hours of work are so organized that the meal breaks are short. A snack bar, buffet or mobile trolleys can provide tea, coffee and soft drinks, as well as light refreshments. Canteens or a restaurant can allow workers to purchase a cheap, well-cooked and nutritious meal for a reasonable price and eat in a clean, comfortable place, away from the workstation. **6. CHILD-CARE FACILITIES** Many employers find that working mothers are especially loyal and effective workers, but they often face the special problems of carrying for children. It is for this reason that child- care facilities, including crèches and day-care centers, should be provided. These should be in secure, airy, clean and well lit premises. Children should be looked after property by qualified staff and offered food, drink education and play at very low cost. **7. RECREATIONAL FACILITIES** offer workers the opportunity to spend their leisure time in activities likely to increase physical and mental well-being. They may also help to improve social relations within the enterprise. Such facilities can include halls for recreation and for indoor and outdoor sports, reading-rooms and libraries, clubs for hobbies, picnics and cinemas. Special educational and vocational training courses can also be organized.