Module 1 Revised Notes 20 Nov. PDF

Module1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) 1.1 Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a crucial role in biology and are an essential energy source for living organisms. They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms and are class...

Module1 BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE) 1.1 Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that play a crucial role in biology and are an essential energy source for living organisms. They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms and are classified based on their molecular structure and function. General formula is Cn(H2O)n. Monosaccharides These are the simplest forms of carbohydrates and include glucose and fructose. They are readily soluble in water and serve as the primary source of energy for the body. Figure: Structural formula of glucose Figure: Ring structural formula of glucose, fructose, and galactose Page 1 Disaccharides These are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides and include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. They are commonly found in sugar and are broken down into monosaccharides during digestion. Figure: Structural formula of sucrose, lactose, and maltose Polysaccharides These are long chains of monosaccharides linked together. They serve as storage molecules for energy, such as glycogen in animals and starch in plants, and provide structure and support, such as cellulose in plant cell walls. In addition to their role as energy sources, carbohydrates also play important roles in cellular processes, such as cellular signaling and recognition, and in regulating gene expression. Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of starch Page 2  Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of cellulose Figure: Ring structural formula and line structural formula of glycogen Overall, carbohydrates are essential components of biological systems and play a crucial role in maintaining the health and survival of living organisms. Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in various industries, including: 1. Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers in food and beverage products. They are also used as energy sources in sports drinks and energy bars. Page 3 2. Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations to improve the stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are also used as a source of energy in medical nutrition products. 3. Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as moisturizers, shampoos, and conditioners, to provide hydration and improve skin and hair health. 4. Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used to produce biodegradable plastics, biofuels, and other renewable energy sources. 5. Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in immunology, virology, and cellular biology. They are used as ligands in protein-carbohydrate interactions and as probes to study cellular signaling pathways. 1.1.1. Cellulose-Based Water Filters Cellulose-based water filters are filters made from cellulose, a carbohydrate polymer found in plant cell walls. They are used to remove impurities and contaminants from water and are an alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters. The high mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties of cellulose make it an ideal material for water filtration. Cellulose filters can effectively remove particles, pathogens, and other contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable. Cellulose-based water filters are widely used in both developed and developing countries for household, industrial, and agricultural applications. They are also an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filters, as they are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources. Properties of cellulose-based water filter Cellulose-based water filters have several properties that make them an attractive choice for water filtration, because of their high porosity structure, biodegradability, good mechanical strength, large surface area, and chemical resistance properties. These properties of cellulose-based water filter allow them to become a better alternative to synthetic filters. Advantages of cellulose-based water filters Cellulose-based water filters have several advantages that make them an attractive option for water filtration: 1. Environmentally friendly and sustainable: Cellulose-based water filters are made from a renewable resource, cellulose, and are biodegradable, reducing their environmental impact compared to synthetic polymer filters. 2. Cost-effective: Cellulose-based water filters are often more affordable than traditional synthetic polymer filters, making them accessible to a broader range of consumers and communities. 3. High porosity: Cellulose-based water filters have a high porosity structure, which allows them to remove impurities efficiently and contaminants from water. 4. Versatile: Cellulose-based water filters can be used in various types of filtration systems and can be produced in different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs. 5. Good mechanical strength: Cellulose-based water filters have good mechanical strength, allowing them to maintain their structure and perform effectively over time. 6. Chemical resistance: Cellulose-based water filters resist most chemicals, including acids and bases, and can be used in various water treatment applications. 7. Large surface area: Cellulose-based water filters have a large surface area, which enhances their filtration capabilities and reduces the frequency of filter replacement. Page 4 8. Safe and clean water: Cellulose-based water filters effectively remove impurities and contaminants from water, making it safer and more potable for various applications, including household, industrial, and agricultural use. 9. Alternative to synthetic filters: Cellulose-based water filters provide an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters, reducing the dependency on nonrenewable resources and reducing waste. Limitations of cellulose-based water filters Cellulose-based water filters have some limitations that need to be considered when choosing a water filtration solution: Low resistance to high temperature: Cellulose-based water filters have low resistance to high temperatures and can lose their structural integrity when exposed to high temperatures. Low filtration efficiency for specific contaminants: Cellulose-based water filters may not be efficient in removing specific contaminants, such as heavy metals, from water. Limited lifespan: Cellulose-based water filters have a limited lifespan and may need to be replaced more frequently compared to synthetic polymer filters. Difficult to sterilize: Cellulose-based water filters may be difficult to sterilize, increasing the risk of contamination. May clog easily: Cellulose-based water filters may clog easily when exposed to high contaminants, reducing filtration efficiency, and requiring frequent replacement. May affect water taste: Cellulose-based water filters may affect the taste of waterby absorbing or releasing certain chemicals or minerals, reducing the quality of the purified water. Construction of cellulose-based water filters Construction of cellulose-based water filters involves the following steps: 1. Cellulose Material Selection: The type of cellulose material used in the water filter will depend on the desired properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical resistance. Common cellulose materials include paper, cotton, and wood fibers. 2. Cellulose Preparation: The cellulose material is prepared by cutting it into small pieces, washing it to remove impurities, and drying it for use. 3. Cellulose Layer Formation: The cellulose material is formed into a layer by either stacking it or compacting it using heat and pressure. 4. Filter Medium Attachment: The cellulose layer is attached to a filter medium such as a mesh or a support structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface area. 5. Chemical Treatment: The cellulose layer may be chemically treated to modify its properties, such as increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents. 6. Housing Assembly: The filter medium is assembled into a housing that provides a means to attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered water. 7. Filter Testing: The completed filter is tested to ensure that it meets the desired specifications, such as filtration efficiency and flow rate. Note: This is a general outline, the exact process may vary depending on the specific requirements of the water filter and the type of cellulose material used. Page 5 Cellulose-based water filters for household The cellulose material commonly used in household water filters is cellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate is a synthetic form of cellulose that has properties such as good chemical resistance, high porosity, and high flow rate, making it suitable for use in household water filters. Additionally, cellulose acetate is also a low-cost material, making it accessible for use in household applications. Figure: Cellulose acetate material Other cellulose materials such as paper, cotton, and wood fibers may also be used, but cellulose acetate is the most used due to its favorable properties for water filtration applications. 1.1.2. Bioplastic 1.1.2.1. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) as Bioplastic Figure: General representation and examples of PHAs Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a class of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters produced by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. They are a type of bioplastic. They are made from renewable resources, such as sugar and cornstarch, and are an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics. Page 6  Properties of PHA PHAs have several properties that make them ideal for use as bioplastics, including: 1. Biodegradability: PHAs are biodegradable and can break down into water andcarbon dioxide, reducing their impact on the environment. 2. Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible and can be used in medical devices, such as sutures and implants, without causing adverse reactions in the body. 3. Mechanical properties: PHAs have similar mechanical properties to traditional petroleum- based plastics, making them suitable for various applications. 4. Processing: PHAs can be processed using conventional plastic processing techniques, such as injection molding, blow molding, and extrusion. Engineering applications of PHA bioplastic 1. Packaging: used in various forms of packaging such as food containers, beverage cups, and clamshell containers. 2. Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can be used in the manufacture ofmedical devices such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems. 3. Textiles: used in the production of biodegradable textiles, as well as to produce biodegradable composites for use in construction and furniture. 4. Agricultural Mulch Films: used in the production of biodegradable mulch films for agriculture to reduce soil erosion and conserve moisture. 5. Consumer Goods: used in the production of various consumer goods, such as toys, phone cases, and water bottles. 6. Automotive Parts: used to produce biodegradable automotive parts such as air ducts and headlamp covers. 7. Electronic Devices: used to produce biodegradable components in electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops. 8. Aerospace: PHA is used to produce biodegradable parts in aerospace applications, such as insulation and cable management. 9. Sporting Goods: used to produce biodegradable sporting goods such as golf tees and fishing lures. 10. Construction: used to produce biodegradable insulation and sound proofing materials. 1.1.2.1. Poly Lactic Acid as Bioplastic Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a biodegradable and bio-based plastic made from corn starch, sugarcane, or other natural resources. Figure: Molecular formula of PLA It is commonly used as a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum- based plastics in various applications such as packaging, disposable tableware, and 3D printing. However, it's important to Page 7 note that while PLA is biodegradable in industrial composting facilities, it may not break down in the environment as quickly as advertised. It may still negatively impact wildlife and ecosystems if not correctly disposed of. Properties of PLA as bioplastic Biodegradable: It can be broken down by microorganisms in industrial composting facilities, reducing waste in landfills. Renewable: It is derived from renewable resources such as corn starch or sugarcane, reducing dependence on finite petroleum resources. Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent appearance, making it suitable for packaging applications. Heat-resistant: PLA has a relatively low melting temperature and is not recommended for high heat applications, but it can maintain its shape and stability up to 60°C. Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible, making it suitable for food packaging and medical devices. Stiffness and Strength: PLA has good stiffness and strength, but not as strong as traditional petroleum-based plastics. Printability: PLA is commonly used in 3D printing due to its good printability and ease of use. Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic Automotive parts: PLA produces biodegradable automotive parts such as air ducts and headlamp covers. Electronic Devices: PLA produces biodegradable components in electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops. Aerospace: PLA produces biodegradable parts in aerospace applications, such as insulation and cable management. Sporting Goods: PLA produces biodegradable sporting goodssuch as golf tees and fishing lures. Construction: PLA is used to produce biodegradable insulation and soundproofing materials. Agricultural Equipment: PLA produces biodegradable parts in agricultural equipment such as seed trays and greenhouse film. Medical Equipment: PLA produces biodegradable components in medical equipment such as diagnostic equipment and hospital beds. Page 8 1.2. Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the storage and transfer of genetic information in all living organisms. There are two types of nucleicacids: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic material that carries the instructions for the development, functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms. DNA is a double-stranded helix (ds helix) structure composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine). Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression of the genetic information stored in DNA by carrying the message from the DNA to the ribosome, where it is used to build proteins. RNA is a single-stranded molecule composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil). Figure: Schematic representation of DNA and RNA Both DNA and RNA play essential roles in the functioning of cells and organisms, and their structures and interactions with other molecules are the basis for many biological processes such as replication, transcription, and translation. 1.2.1. DNA Vaccine A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an immune response against the pathogen. The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's DNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or bacterial proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen. DNA vaccines are being actively researched and developed for a range of diseases, including Page 9  cancer, rabies, influenza, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). While the technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential to revolutionize the field of vaccine development and provide new treatment options for a range of diseases. 1.2.2. DNA Vaccine for Rabies A DNA vaccine for rabies is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of rabies virus DNA to stimulate an immune response against the virus. The vaccine works by introducing the rabies virus DNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral proteins. These viral proteins are then displayed on the surfaceof the cells, which triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the rabies virus. Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies DNA vaccines offer several advantages over traditional vaccines, including their ability to stimulate a strong and long-lasting immune response with fewer dosesrequired, as well as their ease of manufacture and storage. These advantages make DNA vaccines particularly useful for preventing the spread of infectious diseases like rabies. In the case of rabies, DNA vaccines have several key advantages: 1.2.2.1. Efficacy: DNA vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing rabies infection in both animal and human trials. In one study, a DNA vaccine was found to be as effective as a traditional vaccine in protecting dogs againstrabies. 1.2.2.2. Long-lasting protection: DNA vaccines can stimulate a strong and long- lasting immune response, which means that they can provide protection against rabies for extended periods of time. 1.2.2.3. Ease of administration: DNA vaccines are easy to administer, as they can be given via injection or even delivered orally, which can be particularly useful in areas where access to medical facilities is limited. 1.2.2.4. Cost-effective: DNA vaccines are relatively inexpensive to produce compared to traditional vaccines, which can make them more accessible in areas whereresources are limited. 1.2.2.5. Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not contain live virus particles, which means that they are generally safer and have a lower risk of side effects compared to traditional vaccines. 1.2.3. RNA Vaccines RNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from a pathogen, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the disease. The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral or bacterial proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the pathogen. RNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines, including faster production time and the ability to target multiple antigens. RNA vaccines can be manufactured quickly, making them a good option for emergency situations where large numbers of people need to be vaccinated quickly. RNA vaccines are also thought to be safer than traditional vaccines, as they do not contain any live virus or bacteria that could cause disease. RNA vaccines are currently being Page 10  developed and tested for various diseases, including COVID 19, influenza, and cancer. 1.2.4. RNA Vaccines for Covid19 RNA vaccines for COVID 19 are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from the SARS-CoV- 2 virus, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune responseagainst the virus. The vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce viral proteins. These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response and the production of antibodies against the virus. The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized for emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions worldwide. Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was authorized for emergency use in December 2020. Figure: Schematic representation of RNA Covid19 vaccine administration. (Ref. https://healthfeedback.org/how-were-mrna-vaccines-developed-for-covid-19) Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19 RNA vaccines have emerged as a promising tool for preventing the spread of COVID-19, offering several key advantages over traditional vaccine approaches. Here are some of the main reasons why RNA vaccines are essential in the fight against COVID-19: 1. High efficacy: RNA vaccines are highly effective at preventing COVID-19 infections. The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA vaccines, for example, have reported efficacy rates of around 95% in clinical trials. 2. Rapid development: RNA vaccines can be rapidly developed and manufactured, particularly useful in a pandemic. The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, for instance, was developed in under a year, and went from the initial discovery of the viral genome to emergency use authorization in less than 11 months. 3. Easy to modify: RNA vaccines can be easily modified to target new strains or variants of the virus. This means that if a new variant emerges resistant to the existing vaccines, it is possible to modify the vaccine to protect against the new strain quickly. 4. Safe: RNA vaccines are generally considered safe, as they do not contain anylive virus particles. Page 11  They work by instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus (in this case, the spike protein), which triggers an immune response that protects against the virus. 5. Potential for broader use: RNA vaccines can prevent other infectious diseases, such as influenza, HIV, and Zika, and treat cancer. 1.2.5. Forensics – DNA Fingerprinting DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a technique used in forensic science to identify an individual based on their unique DNA profile. The process involves analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA, called markers, which can vary from person to person. Figure: Schematic representation of DNA Fingerprinting (Ref. https://allaboutdnafingerprinting.weebly.com/steps-of-dna-fingerprinting.html) Working of DNA fingerprinting for forensic applications Page 12 1. Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological sample, such as blood, semen, or hair. The sample is then purified and processed to isolate the DNA. 2. DNA amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified using a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR produces copies of a specific DNA region, allowing more accurate analysis. 3. DNA analysis: The amplified DNA is then analyzed using gel electrophoresis. The DNA fragments are separated based on size and charge, anda DNA profile is generated. 4. DNA comparison: The DNA profile obtained from the biological sample is then compared to the DNA profiles of other individuals, such as suspects or victims, to determine if there is a match. DNA comparison is typically done manually by forensic analysts, as it involves analyzing complex DNA profiles and comparing them to control samples to determine if there is a match. However, artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to play a more prominent role in DNA analysis, particularly in the development of automated DNA profiling systems. The DNA profile consists of a series of bands on a gel, which represent specific DNA fragments. The bands are compared to those from a control sample, such as blood or saliva from a suspect or victim, to see if there is a match. If there is a match, it is considered strong evidence that the biological sample came from that individual. Forensic DNA fingerprinting has become a critical tool in criminal investigations, allowing investigators to link individuals to crime scenes and to exonerate innocent individuals who may have been wrongly accused. It has also been used to identify victims of natural disasters and mass casualties, and to resolve paternity disputes. Page 13 1.3. Proteins: Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building blocks called amino acids or polypeptide chains of amino acids. They play a vital role in the structure, function, and regulation of cells, tissues, and organs. Figure: Schematic representation of Amino acid (monomer unit of protein) and its functional group Functions of Proteins Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and muscle contraction. The structure of a protein determines its function, and the sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its structure. There are 20 different types of amino acids, and the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its unique structure and function. 1) Catalyzing chemical reactions Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose and maltose. It is found in saliva and pancreatic juice. Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is found in the pancreas and small intestine. Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. It is found in most cells of the body. Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in the pancreas and released into the small intestine. ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found in the mitochondria of cells. 2) Transporting molecules Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body. Albumin: Albumin is a protein in blood plasma that helps transport substances such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the body. Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the site of absorption in the gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that require it. Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids (fats) in the bloodstream. Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE. Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. Page 14  Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that transport glucoseand other sugars across cell membranes. Examples include GLUT1 and GLUT4. 3) Providing mechanical support Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides support to tissues such as skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth. Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues such as skin, lungs, arteries, and ligaments. Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and the outer layer of skin. Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins involved in muscle contraction and provide the mechanical force required for movement. Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules, which support cells and are involved in various cellular processes suchas cell division and intracellular transport. Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular matrix and provides structural support to cells in tissues such as skin, muscles, and organs. 4) Regulating cell behavior Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the surface of cells and bind to specific signaling molecules such as hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. When these molecules bind to the receptor, they trigger a cellular response, such as a change in gene expression or the activationof an intracellular signaling pathway. Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific chemical reactions in the body. Many enzymes regulate cellular behavior, such as kinases and phosphatases that regulate protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, respectively. Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, are critical in regulating cell shape, movement, and division. Figure: Pictorial representation of components of cytoskeleton (Ref. https://colosoimages.com/foto/cytoskeleton-structure-as-complex-protein-233639056- Page 15  dreamstime) Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and regulate gene expression. They are critical in regulating cellular differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are involved in cell-to-cell and cell-to-matrix adhesion. They are critical in regulating cell behavior such as cell migration, tissue development, and wound healing. Figure: Pictorial representation of cell-to-cell adhesion (Melatonin protein-mediated interaction) (Ref. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cell-cell-adhesion-Melatonin-induces- protein-CX-32-of-the-junction-spaces-and-increases_fig3_322738296) Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell membrane. They play a critical role in regulating cellular excitability andcommunication. Proteins are synthesized by cells from the genetic information encoded in DNA. Protein synthesis begins when the genetic code for a particular protein is transcribed into a messenger RNA molecule (mRNA). The mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus and into the cytoplasm, where it is translated into a protein by ribosomes. Proteins play a critical role in many biological processes, and their dysfunction is involved in developing many diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders. Understanding the structure and function of proteins is therefore a significant focus of biomedical research, to develop new treatments and therapies forthese diseases. 1.3.1. Proteins as Food Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body with amino acids, which are the building blocks of the body's tissues. Proteins are found in many foods, including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu,and eggs. Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet, as they help to build and repair tissues, support immune function, and regulate various metabolic processes. The body also uses proteins as a Page 16 source of energy when carbohydrates and fats arenot available. The quality of proteins in food is determined by the types of amino acids they contain, as well as the amount of each type of amino acid. To ensure adequate protein intake, it is important to consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to include both complete and incomplete protein sources in the diet. It is also important to consume enough other nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals to support overall health and well-being. Whey protein as food Whey protein is derived from the liquid that separates from milk during the cheese-making process. It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all the essential amino acids the body needs to build and repair tissues. Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement, particularly by athletes, body builders, and people looking to increase their protein intake. It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and other beverages, and is also available in powder form that can be mixed into other foods or beverages. Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is rapidly absorbed by the body and is high in branched-chain amino acids, which are essential for muscle growth and repair. It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including calcium, potassium,and vitamins B2 and B12. However, it is important to note that not all whey protein products are equal in quality, purity, and nutrient content. Some whey protein supplements may contain added sugars, artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that can be harmful to health. It is therefore important to choose a reputable brand and to carefully read the ingredient list before purchasing. Use of whey protein as food Whey protein is derived from cow's milk and is commonly used as a food supplement. There are several uses of whey protein as food, including: Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by athletes and fitness enthusiaststo help build and repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense exercise,and increase overall muscle mass. Weight management: Whey protein can help manage weight by increasing satiety and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat. Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential amino acids and has been shown to have various health benefits, including improved immune function, lower blood pressure, and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Meal replacement: Whey protein can be used as a meal replacement, either as a drink or in a variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient sourceof protein, making it a popular option for people with busy schedules or limitedaccess to fresh foods. Whey protein is available in a variety of forms, including powders, bars, and drinks. It is often added to smoothies, baked goods, and other food products to increase the protein content. When using whey protein as food, it is important to choose a high-quality product that is free of artificial sweeteners, flavors, and other additives. Page 17 It is also important to talk to a healthcare professional before starting to use whey protein, especially when one has any medical conditions or allergies. Meat analogs of protein Meat analogs, also known as meat substitutes or meat alternatives, are plant-based foods designed to mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat. They are made from various ingredients, including soy protein, wheat protein, pea protein, and other plant-based ingredients, and are often fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a similar nutritional profile to meat. Meat analogs are a popular alternative to meat for many people, including vegetarians, vegans, and those who are looking to reduce their meat consumption for health or ethical reasons. They can be a good source of protein and can help to meet the body's protein needs. There are many different types of meat analogs available, including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices, and more. Some are designed to mimic specific types of meat, such as chicken, beef, or pork, while others are marketed as a more generic "meat-like" product. When choosing meat analogs, it is important to look for products high in protein and low in added sugars, fats, and other ingredients that can harm health. It is also important to consider the texture and taste, as some meat analogs can be more appealing than others. Examples of meat analogs of protein as food Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile meat analog that can be used in various dishes, including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies. Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is made from fermented soybeans and has a nutty flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in sandwiches or salads, or crumbled and used as a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces. Seitan: Also known as wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan is made from wheat gluten and has a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be used as a substitute for beefor pork in various dishes. Veggie burgers: Made from various plant-based ingredients, including soy protein, grains, and vegetables, veggie burgers are a popular meat analog that can be grilled or baked and served on a bun. Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients such as soy protein, grains, and vegetables, meatless meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich alternative to traditional meatballs. Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea protein, or other plant-based ingredients, plant-based sausages are a convenient and protein-rich alternative to traditional sauages. a) b) c) Page 18  d) e) f) Figure: Images of a) Tofu, b) Tempeh, c) Seitan, d) Veggie burgers, e) Meatless meatballs, f) Plant-based sausages These are just a few examples of meat analogs of protein as food. There are many other products available that can provide a similar taste, texture, and nutritional profile to meat, making it easier for people to reduce or eliminate theirmeat consumption for health or ethical reasons. 1.3.2. Plant-based Proteins Plant-based proteins are derived from plant sources, such as legumes, grains, nuts, and seeds. They are becoming increasingly popular as an alternative to animal-based proteins, especially for those following a vegetarian orvegan diet. Here are some benefits of plant-based proteins: Sustainable: Plant-based protein sources are more environmentally sustainable than animal-based sources, as they require fewer resources to produce andgenerate fewer greenhouse gas emissions. Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources contain other essential nutrients, such as fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in various ways, including as a protein supplement, in smoothies, or as an ingredient in multiple recipes. Hypoallergenic: Plant-based proteins are often better tolerated than animal-based proteins, making them a good option for people with food allergies or sensitivities. Cost-effective: Plant-based protein sources are often more affordable than animal-based sources, making them a more accessible option for many people. Examples of plant-based proteins include soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein, chickpea protein, and hemp protein. It is essential to choose a high-quality product free of artificial additives and preservatives and consult a healthcare professional before startingto use any new protein supplement. Uses of plant-based proteins Plant-based proteins are commonly used in a variety of ways, including: 1. Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are often sold as powders, bars, and other supplements, making them a convenient way to add protein to a diet. Page 19 2. Food products: Plant-based proteins are used as ingredients in various food products, including plant-based meat analogs, protein bars, and smoothies. 3. Health and wellness: Plant-based proteins are often marketed as a healthier alternative to animal-based proteins due to their lower saturated fat and cholesterol content. 4. Vegetarian and vegan diets: Plant-based proteins are a popular source of protein for people following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as they do not contain animal products. 5. Fitness and sports nutrition: Plant-based proteins are also used by athletes and fitness enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth. It is essential to choose a high-quality plant-based protein product and to consult a healthcare professional before starting to use any new protein supplement. It is also important to remember that plant-based proteins may not contain all the essential amino acids found in animal-based proteins, so it may be necessary to consume a variety of plant-based protein sources to ensure adequate protein intake. Page 20 1.4. Lipids Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and some hormones. Figure: Schematic representation of lipid molecule, bilayer, andmicelle formation. Figure: Molecular structure of phospholipid (cell membrane) and triglyceride (fat) Page 21  Role of Lipids Energy storage: Lipids are a significant source of stored energy in the body, and they can be broken down to release energy when needed. Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to regulate temperature and protect against heat loss. Cell membrane structure: Lipids are a significant component of cell membranes, helping to maintain their fluidity and stability. Hormone synthesis: Some lipids, such as cholesterol, are precursors to hormones and are necessary for their production. Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat but not in water. This makes them ideal for carrying fat- soluble vitamins and other lipophilic compounds through the bloodstream. There are several types of lipids, including saturated and unsaturated fats, phospholipids, and steroids. It is essential to have a balanced diet that includes a moderate amount of healthy lipids, such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats while limiting the intake of saturated and trans fats. This can help to maintain overall health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and stroke. Engineering Applications of Lipids 1. Cosmetics: used in cosmetics, such as moisturizers, to improve skin hydration and texture. 2. Food industry: used as ingredients in food products, such as margarineand frying oils, to improve texture, flavor, and shelf life. 3. Medical devices: used in medical devices, such as lipid-based drug delivery systems, to improve the delivery and efficacy of drugs. 4. Biofuels: Lipids, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, can be converted into biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, to provide a renewable energy source. 5. Surface modification: Lipids can modify the surface properties of materials, such as metals and polymers, to improve their performance and biocompatibility. 6. Surfactants: used as surfactants, compounds that reduce surface tension and improve the mixing of oil and water-based substances. It is important to note that the properties and applications of lipids can vary depending on the specific type of lipid and the processing method used. Further research is needed to fully understand and harness the potential of lipids in engineering applications. 1.4.1. Lipids as Biodiesel Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, a renewable energy source. Biodiesel is typically produced by transesterifying vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol, such as methanol, to form methyl esters. The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in replacement for traditional diesel fuel in internalcombustion engines. Advantages Page 22  1. Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource, and they can be produced from various sources, such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and microalgae. 2. Reduced emissions: Biodiesel produces fewer emissions than traditional diesel fuel, reducing environmental and public health impacts. 3. Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine performance, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing engine wear and tear. 4. Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable, which reduces the risk of environmental contamination in the event of a spill. However, there are also some limitations to using lipids as biodiesel, such as higher production costs compared to traditional diesel fuel and the need for more efficient and cost-effective processing methods. Nevertheless, the use of lipids as biodiesel has the potential to play an essential role in the transition towards a more sustainable energy system. The Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable oils or animal fats, are collected and purified to remove impurities. Transesterification: The purified lipids are mixed with an alcohol, such as methanol, and a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide, to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), the main components of biodiesel. This process is known as transesterification. Separation: The reaction mixture is then separated into two layers: the upper layer contains the FAME (biodiesel), and the lower layer contains the glycerol (byproduct). Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water to remove any residual alcohol and soap formed during the transesterification reaction. The biodiesel is then dried to remove any remaining moisture. Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove impurities and improve quality. Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and distributed as fuel. It is important to note that the exact process can vary depending on the specific type of lipid and the desired quality of the final product. Further research is needed to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the biodiesel production process. 1.4.2. Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are commonly used as emulsifiers and surfactants in personal care products, such as shampoos, soaps, and lotions. Industrial cleaning: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents in various industrial applications, such as metal cleaning, degreasing, and stain removal. Laundry detergents: Lipids, such as fatty acids and glycerides, are used as ingredients in laundry detergents to improve their cleaning and enhance performance. Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: Lipids can be used as cleaning agents for hard surfaces, such as floors, countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime. Page 23  Lipids have several properties that make them suitable as cleaning agents, including their ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils. Additionally, lipids can form micelles, tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt particles, making it easier to remove them. However, it is essential to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is needed to optimize lipids as cleaning agents and identify new and more effective lipids for this purpose. Examples of lipids used as a cleaning agent Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction of an alkali with a fat or oil. Soaps are made from various lipids, including animal fats and vegetable oils. Fatty acids: Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in personal care products, such as bar soaps and shampoos. Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production and can be used as a cleaning agent in various applications, including household cleaners and industrial cleaning solutions. Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used as cleaning agents in personal care products and industrial cleaning solutions. These are a few examples of lipids that are used as cleaning agents. Many other lipids with different properties can be used for cleaning, depending on the specific requirements of each application. Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents 1. Biodegradability: Lipids are derived from natural sources, such as plants and animals, and are biodegradable, which makes them more environmentally friendly than many synthetic cleaning agents. 2. Renewable resources: Lipids can be obtained from renewable resources, such as crops, and are not based on finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents. 3. Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and emulsifying properties, making them effective cleaning agents. 4. Mildness: Lipids are typically mild and gentle, making them suitable for personal care products, such as soaps and shampoos, and for cleaning delicate materials, such as silk and wool. 5. Cost-effective: Lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, especially from low-cost feedstocks like vegetable oils. 6. Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized to improve theircleaning performance and to meet specific application needs. However, it is essential to note that not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its performance. Further research is needed to optimize lipids as cleaning agents and identify new and more effective lipids for this purpose. Limitations of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents Page 24 1. Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and degradation, reducing their effectiveness as cleaning agents over time. 2. Compatibility: Some lipids may not be compatible with certain surfaces or materials and may cause staining or damage. 3. Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive than synthetic cleaning agents, the cost can vary depending on the source of the lipids and the processing methods used. 4. Availability: The availability of lipids as feedstocks, such as crops and animal fats, and the need for processing and refining may limit cleaning agents. 5. Performance: The cleaning performance of lipids can vary depending on the specific properties of each lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed. Some lipids may not perform as well as synthetic cleaning agents in specific applications. 6. Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is regulated by government agencies, and specific requirements may vary from country to country. Overall, further research and development are needed to overcome these limitations and optimize lipids' use as cleaning agents and detergents. Working principle of lipids as a cleaning agent The working principle of lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on their ability to dissolve grease and oils. Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing) and hydrophilic (water-loving) regions, which allow them to surround grease and oils, effectively breaking them down into smaller particles that can be more easily removed. Lipids are commonly used in cleaning products such as soaps, shampoos, laundry detergents, and dishwashing liquids. When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface, the hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround and dissolve grease and oils. In contrast, the hydrophilic regions interact with water, allowing the mixture to be rinsed away. The combination of the lipid and water also forms an emulsion, which helps to suspend and remove dirt and debris. In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such as foaming or lathering capabilities, that can enhance their cleaning performance. For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming agents in shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering properties. These additional properties can help loosen and remove dirt and debris, making cleaning more effective. Page 25 1.5. Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological reactions. They speed up the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed. Enzymes are specific to the type of reaction they catalyze, and they bind to particular substrates to facilitate the response. Enzymes are crucial in variousmetabolic pathways, digestion, and cellular respiration. Figure: Schematic representation of the working of the enzyme as a catalyst 1.5.1. Properties of Enzymes for Engineering Applications Enzymes have several properties that make them ideal for engineering applications, including: Specificity: Enzymes have a high level of specificity for the substrates they bind and the reactions they catalyze, making them highly efficient at performing specific tasks. Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed, allowing them to perform multiple cycles of the same reaction. Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at various temperatures and pH values, making them useful in different industrial processes. Renewability: Enzymes are biodegradable and can be produced from renewable resources, making them an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional chemical catalysts. Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large quantities through fermentation, making them a cost-effective alternative to synthetic catalysts in many applications. These properties make enzymes ideal for industrial and engineering applications, from bioremediation and biofuel production to food and beverage processing and textile production. 1.5.2. Engineering Applications of Enzymes Bioremediation: Enzymes are used to break down environmental pollutants, such as oils, pesticides, and toxic waste. Biofuel production: Enzymes convert plant material into biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel. Food and beverage production: Enzymes are widely used in the food and beverage industry for baking, brewing, cheese making, and juice production. Page 26  Textile production: Enzymes are used to remove stains, whiten fabrics, and improve the softness of textiles. Detergents: Enzymes are used in laundry detergents to break down protein, starch, and lipid stains. Pharmaceuticals: Enzymes produce various pharmaceutical products, such as antibiotics and vaccines. Research and biotechnology: Enzymes are used as tools in genetic engineering, protein engineering, and molecular biology. 1.5.3. Biosensors Biosensors are analytical devices that combine a biological recognition element with a transducer to detect and quantify target analytes. The biological recognition element can be an enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that specifically interacts with the target analyte. The transducer converts the biological response into an electrical signal that can be quantified and interpreted. Figure: Schematic representation of the working of different biosensors Biosensors have many applications in medicine, environmental monitoring, and food safety. For example, biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucose levels in patients with diabetes, detect contaminants in water and food, and monitor environmental pollutants. Biosensors have several advantages over traditional analytical methods, including rapid response time, high sensitivity, specificity, and portability. Additionally, they can be designed to be disposable and cost-effective, making them a valuable tool in various industriesand applications. 1.5.3.1. Enzymes Used in Biosensors Enzymes are commonly used in biosensors as the biological recognition element. Here are Page 27 some examples of enzymes used in biosensors: 1. Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring for people with diabetes. The enzyme oxidizes glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then detected by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in the blood. 2. Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used to determine lactate levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine. LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected by a transducer. 3. Cholinesterase (ChE): Used to detect organophosphorus pesticides and nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes acetylcholine, and a transducer detects the decrease in acetylcholine levels to quantify the presence of the toxic substances. 4. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Used to detect inorganic phosphates, such as those found in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphates to produce a signal that can be quantified. 5. Urease: Used to detect urea levels in biological fluids, such as urine. Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce ammonium and carbon dioxide, which a transducer can quantify. These are just a few examples of the many enzymes that can be used in biosensors to detect and quantify a wide range of target analytes. Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an enzyme commonly used in biosensors to detect glucose levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine. The enzyme catalyzes glucose oxidation to gluconolactone and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which can be easily detected and quantified by a transducer. Figure: Schematic representation of GOx In glucose biosensors, GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate, such as a polymeric film, to ensure stability and specificity. The transducer in the biosensor can be an electrode, a fluorescence-based system, or another type of sensor, depending on the desired level of sensitivity and specificity. 1.5.3.2. Advantages of Biosensors 1. Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can detect target analytes at low concentrations, making them useful in applications requiring precise quantification. 2. Specificity: Biosensors can be designed to specifically recognize a target analyte, which minimizes interference from other substances in the sample. Page 28 3. Rapid response time: Biosensors can provide results in real time, making them useful when quick results are required. 4. Portability: Biosensors can be designed to be small and portable, making them useful in field applications and remote locations. 5. Cost-effectiveness: Biosensors can be manufactured cheaply, making them an attractive alternative to more expensive analytical methods in some applications. 1.5.3.3. Limitations of Biosensors 1. Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental conditions, such as temperature and pH, leading to degradation of the biological recognitionelement and loss of sensitivity. 2. Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other substances in the sample, which can interfere with the performance of the biosensor. 3. Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration to ensure accuracy, which can increase the time and cost associated with using the biosensor. 4. Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life, and the biological recognition element may degrade over time, leading to decreased sensitivity andspecificity. 5. Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture and use, requiring specialized equipment and expertise to operate effectively. Despite these limitations, biosensors have proven to be a valuable tool in various industries and applications, and research is ongoing to improve their performance and reduce regulations. 1.5.4. Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching Bio-bleaching Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such as enzymes, to remove color and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles. It is a sustainable alternative to traditional chemical bleaching methods that use harsh chemicals like hydrogen peroxide and chlorine. Advantages of Bio-Bleaching Sustainability: Bio-bleaching uses biological agents, such as enzymes, which are renewable and biodegradable, reducing the environmental impact compared to traditional chemical bleaching methods. Improved product quality: Bio-bleaching can produce higher brightness and a more uniform color than traditional chemical bleaching, improving product quality. Reduced energy consumption: Bio-bleaching typically requires lower energy input than chemical bleaching methods, reducing energy consumption and associated costs. Eliminating hazardous chemicals: Bio-bleaching eliminates harsh chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine, which can be dangerous to workers and the environment. Lower production of harmful by-products: Bio-bleaching reduces the formation of toxic by- products, such as dioxins, that can be produced during traditionalchemical bleaching methods. Limitations of Bio-bleaching High cost of enzyme production: The cost of producing enzymes used in bio-bleaching can be high, making the process more expensive than traditional chemical bleaching methods. Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching: Bio-bleaching can be less efficient than Page 29  traditional chemical bleaching methods, requiring longer processing times and higher enzyme doses. Need for further research: Bio-bleaching is still in the early stages of development, and other research is needed to optimize the process and improveefficiency. Lack of widespread implementation: Bio-bleaching is limited by factors such as the high cost of enzyme production, low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching, and the need for further research tooptimize the process. Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching Lignolytic enzymes, such as laccases, peroxidases, and manganese peroxidases, are used in bio- bleaching to remove color and brighten fibers, paper, and textiles. These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of colored impurities in the threads, resulting in a brighter and more uniform color. 1. Laccases are copper-containing oxidases that catalyze the oxidation of lignin, a complex polymer found in plant cell walls, and other compounds such as phenols and aryl alcohols. 2. Peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize organic compounds. 3. Manganese peroxidases use hydrogen peroxide to oxidize lignin and other compounds. Fungi or bacteria typically produce the ligninolytic enzymes used in bio-bleaching. They are immobilized on a support, such as a ceramic bead or a cellulosic matrix, to ensure stability and prolonged activity. The immobilized enzymes are then added to the fibers, catalyzing the oxidation of colored impurities, resulting in a brighter and more uniform color. References: 1. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cell-cell-adhesion-Melatonin-induces-protein-CX- 32-of-the-junction-spaces-and-increases_fig3_322738296 2. https://colosoimages.com/foto/cytoskeleton-structure-as-complex-protein-233639056- dreamstime 3. https://allaboutdnafingerprinting.weebly.com/steps-of-dna-fingerprinting.html 4. https://healthfeedback.org/how-were-mrna-vaccines-developed-for-covid-19 References and Further Reading 1. Biology for Engineers, G.K. Suraishkumar, Oxford University Press. 2. Biology for Engineers, Bibekanand Mallick, McGraw Hill. 3. Biology for Engineers, Wiley Precise Textbook Series, Wiley. 4. Biology for Engineers 21BE45 Course Notes, VTU, Karnataka. Page 30