Learning Module 1 Chemistry for Engineers PDF

LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE DEL SUR STATE OF AGRICULTURE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY A...

LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE DEL SUR STATE OF AGRICULTURE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN, AGUSAN DEL SUR Learning MODULE 1 FIRST YEAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR FOREWORD Preliminaries Students, welcome to this Learning Module. Since you chose distance learning modality, you will be using this material to walk you through the concepts of Chemistry for Engineers to provide students with core concepts of chemistry that are important in the practice of engineering profession. The organization is made in a way that you will enjoy engaging in the tasks arranged in a certain level of difficulty. This learning module is self-instructional and allows you to learn in your own space and pace. So, relax and just enjoy doing the tasks! To get the most out of this module, here are a few reminders: A. Kindly take your time in reading the tasks and the topic. B. For reference and clarification, you may take down notes. You may also discuss these points with your instructor through Facebook Messenger and other online platforms (in case possible). C. Accomplish and answer all tasks. The activities are designed to enhance your understanding of the ideas and concepts being discussed. The tasks at the end of each module will give you an idea how well you understand the lesson. Review the lessons if necessary, until you have achieved a sufficient level of proficiency. D. Write all your answers/responses in the spaces provided in this module. This shall be part of your formative and summative evaluations. E. Always keep safe. Overview of the Module This learning module aims to (1) enhance your competence in language and communication skills; (2) serve as a motivation tool to improve yourself; (3) provide learning experiences that will add information to your knowledge; and (4) contribute to your goals as a student. The module follows the phases of 5Es Instructional Model, namely Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate. Each lesson begins with the objectives and follows the five (5) parts vis-a-vis the phases of 5Es Instructional Model. The READY part is the Objectives to be achieved in each module. This part states the expectation of the module in line with what you should know, understand or perform. The START section which is the Engage phase starts the process of understanding the topic. This will serve as a drill. In the DISCOVER and the Explore phase of the lesson, it relates to your common base of experience or prior knowledge like hands-on or minds-on tasks. LEARN corresponds to the Explain phase. This will allow you to explain the concepts you have been exploring as you will be provided with explanations about the topic. This part serves as the discussion. In PRACTICE phase, you will practice what you have learned since this is the Elaborate phase. You will engage in different formative tasks. EVALUATE or the Evaluate phase encourages you to assess your understanding and abilities on the topic. This will serve as a summative assessment in understanding the target concept or skill. This module contains features that you need to understand as you undertake each task. There are activities that necessitate the presence of Internet to get you to online works. This is done to tract your progress and status with regards the module. At the end of each lesson, answer keys to pre-assessment and practice tests are given. To really test yourself and measure your understanding on the concept presented in each lesson, you are encouraged to answer the activities in your own pace before counting on the answer keys through checking your own work. The modes of delivery will be in the form of self-directed study. You are also encouraged to visit the instructor concerned for assistance during office hours. If the office hours do not meet your schedule, notify the instructor through Facebook or Messenger. These platforms will also be used as a communication tool and information portal for you to access module materials, project briefs, assignments and announcements. It is hoped that this module will achieve its aim of producing alternative learning experience on the target concepts necessary to the development of communication abilities to effectively meet the demands of education amidst this trying pandemic outbreak. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR MODULE CONTENT Foreword Introduction to College Vision, Mission, Goals and Quality Policy History of ASSCAT | ASCAT VMGQ | Institutional Outcome | Grading System | Conclusion Review on the Basics of Chemistry Introduction to Chemistry for Engineers Part 1. Energy Lesson 1- Electrochemical energy Lesson 2 – Nuclear chemistry & energy Lesson 3 - Fuels Part 2. The chemistry of engineering materials Lesson 1 – Basic concepts of crystal structures Lesson 2 - Metals Lesson 3 – Polymers Lesson 4 – Engineered nanomaterials Part 3: The chemistry of the environment Lesson 1 – The chemistry of atmosphere Lesson 2 – The chemistry of water Lesson 3 – Soil chemistry Part 4: Chemical Safety Lesson 1 – MSDS Lesson 2 - OSHA Part 5: Special topics specific to field of expertise Lesson 1: (Chemical equilibrium) Concrete production & weathering Lesson 2: (Electrochemistry) Corrosion COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR CHEMISTRY for Engineers Energy READY LESSON OBJECTIVES Upon accomplishing this module, students will be able to: A. Apply the level of understanding or perspectives to provide an observation. B. Describe the energy conversion of a devise. Provide a suggestion to improve its energy conversion efficiency. C. Compute the kinetic energy (KE) of a molecule. D. Calculate the heat of a system. E. Classify available energy source/fuels in the Philippines. F. Recommend a good renewable energy/fuel source for Filipinos. TARGET SKILLS Relate economic developments with energy consumption; observance on present day challenges; forward thinking; and resourcefulness. LEARNERS First Year, CEIS students TIME FRAME This module will be accomplished approximately in 12 hours within 2 weeks to complete all the activities recommended. This is a distance learning program, thus the time frame is flexible and largely self-directed. REFERENCE 1. Agarwal, S. (2019) Engineering Chemistry Fundamentals and Application, 2nd Ed. 2. Brown, T., Lemay, H., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., Woodward, P. (2018) Chemistry the Central Science, 14th Ed. 3. Brown, L., Holme, T. (2011) Chemistry for Engineering Students, 2nd Ed. 4. Gaffney, J., Marley, N. (2018) General Chemistry for Engineers 5. Greene, R. (2018) Chemistry & Biology of Water, Air & Soil environment COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR START ACTIVITY 1: CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING Some applications of chemistry in engineering are much less obvious. At 1483 feet, the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, were the tallest buildings in the world when they were completed in 1998. Steel was in short supply in Malaysia, so the towers‘ architects decided to build the structures out of something the country had an abundance of and local engineers were familiar with: concrete. But the impressive height of the towers required exceptionally strong concrete. The engineers eventually settled on a material that has come to be known as high strength concrete, in which chemical reactions between silica fume and Portland cement produce a stronger material, more resistant to compression. This example illustrates the relevance of chemistry even to very traditional fields of engineering. Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpor, Malaysia Answer the following questions: 1. Concrete and cement is the SAME. a. True b. False 2. What from the following is NOT among the basic component of a concrete mix? a. Water c. Sand b. Clay powder d. Cement 3. In chemical point of view, what is the MOST desired property of a concrete? a. Smoothness b. Very easy to mix b. Strength d. Earthquake proof 4. What is the purpose of adding cement to a concrete mix? a. To give it colour c. To bind sand/stone with water together b. To give it smoothness d. To absorb and dry out the water 5. What is the purpose of adding water to a cement mixture? a. To make the mixture wet for mixing b. To clean away and remove contaminants c. To cool down the mixture d. To transform cement into its glue like form (Check your answers using Answers Key found at the end part of the module.) COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR DISCOVER ACTIVITY 2: BATTERIES – Electrical energy through a chemical reaction Imagine a world without batteries. All those portable devices we‘re so dependent on would be so limited! We‘d only be able to take our laptops and phones as far as the reach of their cables; making that new running app you just downloaded onto your phone fairly useless. Luckily, we do have batteries. Back in 150 BC in Mesopotamia, the Parthian culture used a device known as the Baghdad battery, made of copper and iron electrodes with vinegar or citric acid. Archaeologists believe these were not actually batteries but were used primarily for religious ceremonies. The chemistry of a battery A battery is a device that stores chemical energy, and converts it to electricity. In a battery, the anode is a metal (like zinc), from which electrons flowed through the wire (when connected) to the MgO, which was the battery‘s cathode. The cells are stacked together to make the total pile and increase the voltage. There are a couple of chemical reactions going on a battery: At the anode, the electrode reacts with the electrolyte in a reaction that produces electrons. These electrons accumulate at the anode. Meanwhile, at the cathode, another chemical reaction occurs simultaneously that enables that electrode to accept electrons. How energy is stored in batteries? When the electrons move from the cathode to the anode, they increase the chemical potential energy, thus charging the battery; when they move the other direction; they convert this chemical potential energy to electricity in the circuit and discharge the battery. Answer the following questions: 1. What are the common batteries readily available in the market? (Enumerate at least 6 types). 2. Why do you think there are a lot of types of batteries? (Check your answers using Answers Key found at the end part of the module.) COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR LEARN ACTIVITY 3: EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Hello! I’m your study buddy. We shall enter the realm of chemistry & discover its secrets. BUT FIRST LET’S answer some questions. WHY ENGINEERING STUDENTS STUDY CHEMISTRY? Engineering has been called an applied science. The various disciplines of engineering focus on the design and construction of structures, machines, apparatus, or processes to solve problems. This requires an in-depth knowledge of the properties of materials and a broad knowledge of science and mathematics. Although engineers use scientific principles in their designs, they must also consider economics and safety issues as well as efficiency, reliability, and ease of construction. In many cases, the best choice of materials for a design may not be economically feasible and compromises must be made. So as one of the sciences, chemistry is clearly included in the realm of knowledge at the disposal of an engineer. Yet engineering students do not always recognize the role of chemistry in their chosen profession. One of the main goals of this course is to instil an appreciation of the role of chemistry in many areas of engineering and technology and in the interplay between chemistry and engineering in a variety of modern technologies. HOW TO STUDY CHEMISTRY? Compared with other subjects, chemistry is commonly perceived to be more difficult, at least at the introductory level. There is some justification for this perception. For one thing, chemistry has a very specialized vocabulary. At first, studying chemistry is LIKE LEARNING A NEW LANGUAGE. Furthermore, some of the concepts are abstract. Nevertheless, with diligence you can complete this course successfully—and perhaps even pleasurably. Listed here are some suggestions to help you form good study habits and master the material: Attend classes regularly and take careful notes. If possible, always review the topics you learned in class the same day the topics are covered in class. Use this module to supplement your notes. Think critically. Ask yourself if you really understand the meaning of a term or the use of an equation. A good way to test your understanding is for you to explain a concept to a classmate or some other person. Do not hesitate to ask your instructor for help. You will find that chemistry is much more than numbers, formulas, and abstract theories. It is a logical discipline brimming with interesting ideas and applications. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR ENOUGH QUESTION AND let’s go LEARN ways an engineer view CHEMISTRY. Chemistry has been called the ―central science‖ because it is important to so many other fields of scientific study. So, even if you have never taken a chemistry course, chances are good that you have seen some chemistry before. The ultimate goal of introductory college chemistry courses is to help you appreciate the chemical viewpoint and the way it can help you to understand the natural world. This type of perspective of the world is what enables chemists and engineers to devise strategies for (example) refining metals from their ores, as well as to approach the many other applied problems we‘ll explore. This coherent picture involves three levels of understanding or perspectives on the nature of chemistry: macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to switch among these perspectives to look at problems involving chemistry in several ways  THE MACROSCOPIC PERSPECTIVE When we observe chemical reactions in the laboratory or in the world around us, we are observing matter at the macroscopic level. Matter is anything that has mass and can be observed. One of the most common ways to observe matter is to allow it to change in some way. Two types of changes can be distinguished:  physical changes  chemical changes When we observe chemical reactions macroscopically, we encounter three common states, or phases, of matter:  solids,  liquids,  gases.  THE MICROSCOPIC PERSPECTIVE The most fundamental tenet of chemistry is that all matter is composed of atoms and molecules. The particulate perspective provides a more detailed look at the distinction between chemical and physical changes. Because atoms and molecules are far too small to observe directly or to photograph, typically we will use simplified, schematic drawings to depict them in this book. Often, atoms and molecules will be drawn as spheres to depict them and consider their changes. Figure 1 below provides an example of a very simple but useful illustration. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR In Figure 1, note the following:  Solid - the atoms are packed closely together, and it is depicted as maintaining its shape here as a block or chunk.  Liquid - has its constituent particles closely packed, but they are shown filling the bottom of the container rather than maintaining their shape.  Gas - is shown with much larger distances between the particles, and the particles themselves move freely through the entire volume of the container.  THE SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION The third way that chemists perceive their subject is to use symbols to represent the atoms, molecules, and reactions that make up the science. The periodic table provide the symbols for the elements discovered so far. Numerical assignments were also given for most of its periodic properties. Electronic configuration show us an atom reactivity, electronegativity, etc. Chemical reactions are presented in a alpha-numeric form most commonly as a chemical equation. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Exercise 1: 1. When we make observations in the laboratory, which among the three (3) perspective of chemistry are we normally using? ____________ 2. Which of the following items are matter and which is not matter? (a) a flashlight - _________ (b) sunlight - ___________ (c) an echo - ____________ (d) air at sea level - ________ (e) air at the top of Mount Everest - ________ 3. Draw and use a molecular level description to explain why gases are less dense than liquids or solids: Solid Liquid Gas ______________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION TO DEFINING ENERGY CHANCES ARE YOU’VE HEARD THE word energy today, perhaps in one of your courses, in the news, in conversation, or possibly in all these instances. Our modern society depends on energy for its existence. The issues surrounding energy—its sources, production, distribution, and consumption—pervade a lot of our conversation, from science to politics to economics to environmental issues. The production of energy is a major factor in the growth of national economies, especially rapidly developing countries such as China, India, and Brazil. A major part of the Brazilian economy has depended on the use of ethanol instead of petroleum-based fuels in transportation and industry. With the exception of the energy from the Sun, most of the energy used in our daily lives comes from chemical reactions: - the combustion of gasoline, - production of electricity from coal, - heating of homes by natural gas, and - use of batteries to power electronic devices are all examples of how chemistry is used to produce energy. - In addition, chemical reactions provide the energy that sustains living systems. Plants, such as the sugarcane, use solar energy to carry out photosynthesis, allowing them to grow. The plants in turn provide food from which we humans derive the energy needed to move, maintain body temperature, and carry out all other bodily functions. The study of energy and its transformations is known as thermodynamics (Greek: thérme-, “heat”; dy’namis, “power”). This area of study began during the Industrial Revolution in order to develop the relationships among heat, work, and fuels in steam engines. In this lesson we will examine the relationships between chemical reactions and energy changes that involve heat. This portion of thermodynamics is called thermochemistry. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR THE NATURE OF ENERGY Energy is commonly defined as the capacity to do work or transfer heat. This definition requires us to understand the concepts of work and heat. Work is the energy used to cause an object to move against a force. Heat is the energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase. FORMS OF ENERGY  Potential Energy  Electrical Energy  Electrochemical energy  Kinetic Energy  Electromagnetic Energy  Nuclear Energy  Thermal Energy  Sound Energy  KINETIC ENERGY & POTENTIAL ENERGY Potential Energy Kinetic Energy (Ek) - the energy of motion - the energy of any object at rest, even without - any moving objects around us possess this motion energy - this energy is, in essence, the ―stored‖ energy - the amount of Ek of an object depends on its that arises from the attractions and repulsions mass (m), and speed (v) an object experiences in relation to other objects Formula for Kinetic energy: - One of the most important forms of potential Ek = ½ mv2 energy in chemistry is Electrostatic Potential Energy (Eel) - kinetic energy of an object increases as its - Eel is proportional to the electrical charges on speed (v) increases the two interacting objects, Q1 and Q2, and - kinetic energy of an object increases as its inversely proportional to the distance (d) mass (m) increases separating them. Formula for Electrostatic Potential Energy: Eel = k Q1Q2 D 9 2 k = 8.99 x 10 J-m/C , a constant of proportionality Potential energy can be transformed into Kinetic energy! The potential energy initially stored in the motionless bicycle at the top of the hill is converted to kinetic energy as the bicycle moves down the hill and lose potential energy. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR UNITS OF ENERGY The SI unit for energy is the joule (J), (pronounced ―jool‖) in honor of James Joule (1818– 1889), a British scientist who investigated work and heat: An Equation below shows that a mass of 2 kg moving at a speed of possesses a kinetic energy of 1 J: 1000 joules = 1 kilo joules = 1kJ A non–SI unit still widely used in chemistry, biology, and biochemistry. A Calorie (cal) was originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C. A calorie is now defined in terms of the joule as: 1000 calories = 1 kilo calories = 1kcal TRANSFERRING ENERGY: WORK & HEAT There are two ways we experience energy changes in our everyday lives—in the form of work and in the form of heat. Work is energy used to cause an object to move. The energy that causes the motion of an object against a force and one that causes a temperature change are the two general ways that energy can be transferred into or out of a system. We define a force (F) as any push or pull exerted on an object. Therefore, we define work (w), w, as the energy transferred when a force moves an object. w = F x d, d = distance the object moves The other way in which energy is transferred is as heat. Heat (q) is the energy transferred from a hotter object to a colder one. Consequently, energy in the form of heat is transferred from the hotter system to the cooler surroundings. Thus, we can attribute the overall change in energy (E), of a system as the total work plus heat: ΔE = w + q It can also be defined as the difference between the final state and the initial state: ΔE = Efinal + Einitial Convention dictates that energy transferred into a system is given a positive sign and energy flowing out of a system Heat is energy used to cause the carries a negative sign. temperature of an object to increase. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Thus when heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the value of q is positive, and when work is done on a system, the value of w is positive. Conversely, when heat flows out of a system or work is done by the system on the surroundings, q and w will be negative. Exercise 2: If 515 J of heat is added to a gas that does 218 J of work as a result, what is the change in the energy of the system? Solution Heat added TO the system means that q is positive, so q = +515 J. Work done BY the system means that w is negative, so w = –218 J. To solve: ΔE = q + w = 515 J + (–218 J) = +297 J Note: Though fairly simple numerically, this problem points to the need to consider the signs of q and w carefully. Try this by yourself! 408 J of work is done on a system that releases 185 J of heat. What is the energy change in the system? Exercise 3: A bowler lifts a 5.4-kg bowling ball from ground level to a height of 1.6 m (5.2 ft) and then drops it. (a) What happens to the potential energy of the ball as it is raised? (b) What quantity of work, in J, is used to raise the ball? (c) After the ball is dropped, it gains kinetic energy. If all the work done in part (b) has been converted to kinetic energy by the time the ball strikes the ground, what is the ball‘s speed just before it hits the ground? (Note: The force due to gravity is F = m x g , where m is the mass of the object and g is the gravitational constant.) Solution: (a) Because the ball is raised above the ground, its potential energy relative to the ground increases. (b) The ball has a mass of 5.4 kg and is lifted 1.6 m. To solve the work: 2 2 2 w = F x d = (m x g) x d = (5.4 kg) x (9.8 m/s ) x (1.6 m) = 85 kg-m /s = 85 J Thus, the bowler has done 85 J of work to lift the ball to a height of 1.6 m. (c) When the ball is dropped, its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. We assume that the kinetic energy just before the ball hits the ground is equal to the work done in part (b),85 J: 2 2 2 Ek = ½ x m x v = 85 J = 85 kg-m /s We can now solve this equation for velocity (v) as: Try this by yourself! What is the kinetic energy, in J, of (a) an Ar atom moving at a speed of 650m/s, (b) a mole of Ar atoms moving at ? COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR HEAT CAPACITY & CALORIMETRY We can observe energy in a laboratory using a systematic way to measure energy flow. We can do this by observing heat flow into or out of a system through a set of techniques collectively called calorimetry. Heat Capacity & Specific Heat In general, the different systems will absorb different amounts of energy based on three (3) main factors:  the amount of material,  the type of material, and  the temperature change If we want to calculate the heat associated with a given temperature change (ΔT), we‘ll need to account for the amount and identity of the material being heated as well as the extent of the temperature change (ΔT). This idea can easily be expressed as an equation below: where q = heat, m = mass, c = specific heat ΔT = temperature change We choose to express the amount of material in terms of moles rather than mass, our equation changes only slightly as below: Where n = number of moles, Cp = molar heat capacity at constant P Table M1.1 shown below provides a list of specific heats and molar heat capacities for a few materials. Exercise 4: Heating a 24.0-g Aluminum can raises its temperature by 15.0°C. Find the value of q for the can. Solution: Try this by yourself! A block of iron weighing 207 g absorbs 1.50 kJ of heat. What is the change in the temperature of the iron? (specific heat of Fe is 0.451 J/g°C). COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Exercise 5: The molar heat capacity of liquid water is 75.3 J/mol K. If 37.5 g of water is cooled from 42.0 to 7.0°C, what is q for the water? Solution: The negative value indicates that the system (in this case, the water) has lost energy to the surroundings. Notice that as long as we correctly express ΔT as Tfinal – Tinitial, the correct sign for q will result automatically. Try this by yourself! If 226 kJ of heat increases the temperature of 47.0 kg of copper by 12.5°C, what is the molar heat capacity of copper? Exercise 6: A glass contains 250.0 g of warm water at 78.0°C. A piece of gold at 2.30°C is placed in the water. The final temperature reached by this system is 76.9°C. What was the mass of gold? The specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g °C, and that of gold is 0.129 J/g °C. Solution: Rearranging gives us, This answer suggests that the gold sample should be close to half the size of the water sample, and our calculated result confirms this. Try this by yourself! A 125-g sample of cold water and a 283-g sample of hot water are mixed in an insulated thermos bottle and allowed to equilibrate. If the initial temperature of the cold water is 3.0°C, and the initial temperature of the hot water is 91.0°C, what will be the final temperature? Calorimetry Experiments are carried out Calorimetry is a term used in devices called to describe the measurement of the heat flow. Calorimeter. The heat evolved or absorbed by the system of interest is determined by measuring the temperature change in its surroundings. Every effort is made to isolate the calorimeter thermally, preventing heat flow between the immediate surroundings and the rest of the universe. If the instrument is thermally isolated from the rest of the universe, the only heat flow that must be considered is that between the system being studied and the immediate surroundings, whose temperature can be measured. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Figure below shows a typical Bomb Calorimeter. A bomb calorimeter is a fairly complicated piece of equipment, as shown in the diagram on the left. But the general premise of the device is simply to carry out a reaction at constant volume and with no heat flow between the calorimeter and the outside world. The diagram shows the standard choice of system and surroundings for a bomb calorimetry experiment. The system consists of the contents of the bomb itself. The surroundings include the bomb and the water bath surrounding it. We assume that no heat is exchanged with the rest of the universe outside the insulated walls of the apparatus The heat capacity of the entire calorimeter may be obtained by measuring the change in temperature of the surroundings resulting from a known heat input: Known amount of heat = calorimeter constant × ΔT or q = Ccalorimeter × ΔT Exercise 7: A calorimeter is to be used to compare the energy content of some fuels. In the calibration of the calorimeter, an electrical resistance heater supplies 100.0 J of heat and a temperature increase of 0.850°C is observed. Then 0.245 g of a particular fuel is burned in this same calorimeter, and the temperature increases by 5.23°C. Calculate the energy density of this fuel, which is the amount of energy liberated per gram of fuel burned. Solution: Step 1: Calibration q = Ccalorimeter × ΔT so Ccalorimeter = q/DT = 100.0 J/0.850°C = 118 J/°C Step 2: Determination of heat evolved by fuel qcalorimeter = Ccalorimeter × ΔT = 118 J/°C × 5.23°C = 615J So -qcalorimeter = -615J Step 3: Calculation of the energy density Energy density = –qfuel/m = –(–615 J)/0.245 g = 2510 J/g = 2.51 kJ/g Try this by yourself! The combustion of naphthalene (C10H8), which releases 5150.1 kJ/mol, is often used to calibrate calorimeters. A 1.05-g sample of naphthalene is burned in a calorimeter, producing a temperature rise of 3.86°C. Burning a 1.83-g sample of coal in the same calorimeter causes a temperature change of 4.90°C. What is the energy density of the coal? COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR LESSON 1: ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY DEFINING ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY Electrochemical energy is what we normally call the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy or vice versa. This includes reactions transferring electrons, redox reactions (reduction- oxidation). Reduction, when a substance receives one electron. Oxidation when a substance gives away one substance receives one electron. There always has to be a balance of substances that give away and substance that receives electrons since electrons cannot exist on their own without any bindings. This means that if a reduction is taking place also an oxidation has to take place. Example “Redox” process Reduction: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (Copper) Oxidation: (Zink) Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-  Electrochemical cells Electrochemical cells either generate electrical energy from chemical reactions or they use electrical energy to cause chemical reactions. There are basically Two (2) types of cells used for electrochemical conversion: 1. The galvanic cell (also called a voltaic cell) that converts chemical energy into electrical energy, by a spontaneous reaction. A standard house hold battery contains one or more galvanic cells. 2. The electrolytic cell that converts electrical energy into chemical energy. Electrical energy is used to fuel the reaction. Alkaline electrolyte battery Dry cells battery uses galvanic type of cell COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR  Electrolysis - a process whereby electrical energy is converted directly into chemical energy (i.e., an electrolytic process). By virtue of their combined chemical energy, the products of an electrolytic process often react spontaneously with one another, reproducing the substances that were reactants and were therefore consumed during the electrolysis.  Electrochemical energy storage Electrochemical energy storage is a method used to store electricity in a chemical form. This storage technique benefits from the fact that both electrical and chemical energy share the same carrier, the electron. This common point allows limiting the losses due to the conversion from one form to another. Common forms for electrochemical storage and conversion  Batteries and accumulators  Capacitors  Fuel cells Lead Acid (Lead storage) Electronic circuits Fuel cell car Battery capacitors  Batteries and accumulators Lead-acid accumulator: Used for many purposes in particular in road vehicles such as automobiles, trucks, buses etc. Typical reaction of a lead acid accumulator: Pb(solid) + PbO2(solid) + 2 H2SO4(liquid) → 2 PbSO4(solid) + 2 H2O(liquid) Discharge → ← Charge Dry cell battery Numerous applications among others for home appliances such as flash lights and small electronics. The ―dry cell‖ is not really a dry cell since the electrolyte used is NH4CI paste. Typical reaction of dry cell battery: 2+ Zn → Zn + 2e– 2 MnO2 + 2H+ + 2e– → Mn2O3 + H2O COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Lithium cell battery Used in various appliances such as cameras, wristwatches, power tools and different types of other electronics. More recently also used as energy supply/storage for electrical automobiles. They come in both non-rechargeable and chargeable versions. Modern lithium cells operate by transporting Li+ ions between electrodes into which the ions can be inserted or intercalated. Cathodes are lithium transition-metal oxides such as LiCoO2, while anodes are lithium-containing carbon, LiC6. The species that undergoes oxidation-reduction is not lithium, but the transition metal. Typical reaction of a lithium cell battery: C + LiCoO2 ↔ LiC6 + Li0.5CoO2 Various materials are being used and tested to overcome lifetime issues and to increase the performance and capacity of the Lithium cells. You can read more about electrochemical batteries here: https://energyfaculty.com/electrochemical-batteries/ Capacitors A capacitor or a condenser is an electrical component used to store energy electrostatically. There are many forms of capacitors. All capacitors contain two or more conductor plates separated by an insulator that can store the energy (a dielectric material). A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between the plates. The prime use for capacitors is in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass or in electric power transmission systems, where they will stabilize the voltage and the power flow. If there is a potential difference across the capacitor`s conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge to collect on the other. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. If a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow. Energy of an electric field The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is: Fuel cells Fuel cells are different from batteries in that they require a continuous source of fuel and oxygen or air to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemicals present in the battery react with each other to generate electricity. Batteries either has to be replaced or recharged when discharged. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied. In most cases fuel cell refers to a reactor where hydrogen ions are transferred between the electrodes. The fuel would be hydrogen or another hydrogen rich substance such as hydrocarbons; diesel, methanol or another natural gas component. The anode and cathode contain catalysts that cause the fuel to undergo oxidation that generate positive hydrogen ions and electrons. The hydrogen ions are drawn through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen react to form water (H 2O). You can read more about fuel cells here: https://energyfaculty.com/fuel-cells/ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Opportunities and Challenges of Electrochemical Energy Storage (EES) According to the energy levels, the applications of EES can be divided into mobile electronics, transportation, and stationary. Cost and performance are two common challenges for all these EES applications, whereas the requirements for the performances vary with the applications.  Mobile Electronics application - In order to be more convenient and appealing, mobile electronics should be smaller and lighter, which places particular requirement for energy density in addition to high power density, long cycle life, and good safety. - Overcharging leads to storage failure for it causes the decomposition of electrolyte solvents.  Transportation application - the cost and performance are two key challenges for the transportation batteries - Costs includes battery cells, battery management, and packing materials, while the performance is quantified by usable energy density, power density, cycle life, and robustness. - Service temperature range - Batteries for transportation require capability of all- weather operations. - Safety - Accidents happen when chemical energy in the battery is released in forms of heat, fire, or explosion in a short timeframe, the destructivity of which is proportional to the chemical energy stored in the battery. Overcharging adds extra energy into the battery in the forms of chemical energy and Joule heat, and hence is considered to be the most dangerous abuse. - Battery management system - For transportation applications, hundreds or even thousands of battery cells are integrated, through the connections of series, parallel, and the hybrid of both, into a pack. The EES technologies are relatively mature for the mobile electronics market; however, grand challenges are faced for the transportation and stationary applications. The cost determines the acceptance by the market, and the safety determines the suitability of the technologies as well as the confidence of the consumers. With these two top priorities, future research and development should focus on the operation performance and reliability, including energy and power densities, energy efficiency, operational temperature range, cycle number, and life span. LESSON 2: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY & ENERGY DEFINING NUCLEAR ENERGY Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Energy is what holds the nucleus together. Nuclear energy can be used to create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom. In nuclear fission, atoms are split to release the energy. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR In a nuclear power plant nuclear fission takes place at a controlled manner to produce electricity. The feed is pellets of uranium. In the reactor, atoms of uranium are broken apart. As they split, the atoms release small particles. The particles cause other uranium atoms to split, starting a chain reaction. The energy released from this chain reaction creates heat.  Fission and Fusion There is basically one nuclear process currently used for commercial energy production that is fission. Fission Fission implies splitting of large atoms normally uranium or plutonium into two smaller atoms. To split an atom, it needs to be hit by a neutron. Several neutrons are then released splitting other nearby atoms, producing a nuclear chain reaction releasing substantial energy, generating heat that is normally turned into electricity. Fusion Fusion is combining two small atoms such as Hydrogen or Helium to produce heavier atoms and energy. These reactions can release more energy than fission without producing as many radioactive byproducts. Fusion reactions occur in the sun, generally using Hydrogen as fuel and producing Helium as waste. This reaction has not been commercially developed yet. The table below shows the energy density of a few materials. When uranium undergoes nuclear fission it attains a very high energy density.  Nuclear binding energy The energy required to break down a nucleus into its component nucleons is called the nuclear binding energy. Nuclear binding energy is usually expressed in terms of kJ/mole of nuclei or MeV/nucleon. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR  Formula – Nuclear energy Mass defect and nuclear binding energy The basis for calculating the nuclear binding energy for a substance is the equation. We first need to calculate the mass defect to be able to calculate the potential for releasing energy when fission takes place. To calculate the mass defect (Dm) we subtract the nucleus mass of the base material from the combined mass of the base material (MassBM ) components: Combined mass (Massc) = Mass Proton (MP) + Mass Neutron (MN) Massc = MP + MN MP = no. of Proton x amu of Proton ` MN = no. of Neutron x amu of Neutron Dm = Massc – MassBM Then to convert the mass defect into energy we first need to convert the mass defect into the unit Kg and then into its energy equivalent: Dm(amu) x 1.6606 x 10-27 kg/nucleus, 1amu = 1.6606 x 10-27 kg c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s therefore, E = mc2 = (Dm(amu) x 1.6606x10-27 kg/nucleus) x (2.9979 x 108 m/s)2 = DM*1,4924483 *10-10 J/nucleus  Nuclear fuel After mining, uranium has to undergo four main steps to make it useable as nuclear fuel. Those are:  Milling  Conversion  Enrichment  Fuel fabrication The main suppliers of uranium are:Kazakhstan, Australia, Canada, Namibia, Niger, Russia and the United States. To enable the chain reactions necessary for continuous operation of a nuclear reactor a high concentration of the isotop, uranium-235 is required. This is obtained by ―enrichment ‖ of the uranium. The main fuel enrichment facilities are located in: France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia the United Kingdom and the United States. When the enrichment has taken place the uranium is converted into powder which is then pressed into pellets. The pellets are loaded into metal tubes which are inserted into the nuclear reactors as fuel. The average useful lifetime of nuclear fuel (uranium) is about five years. This is the time the fuel spends inside the reactor which is powering the electrical generators. The replacement of fuel(uranium tubes) is normally sequenced such that all is not replaced at one time. The replaced units are placed in a pool of water for cooling. These units are highly radioactive. After cooling the used units are stored in containers usually made of steel- reinforced concrete. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Challenges of Nuclear Energy Commercial nuclear power is sometimes viewed by the general public as a dangerous or unstable process. This perception is often based on three global nuclear accidents, its false association with nuclear weapons, and how it is portrayed on popular television shows and films. Used Fuel Transportation, Storage and Disposal Many people view used fuel as a growing problem and are apprehensive about its transportation, storage, and disposal. Constructing New Power Plants Building a nuclear power plant can be discouraging for stakeholders. Conventional reactor designs are considered multi-billion dollar infrastructure projects. High capital costs, licensing and regulation approvals, coupled with long lead times and construction delays, have also deterred public interest. High Operating Costs Challenging market conditions have left the nuclear industry struggling to compete. Strict regulations on maintenance, staffing levels, operator training, and plant inspections have become a financial burden for the industry. Nuclear waste Due to the large amount of highly radioactive waste created during production of nuclear power, waste management is one of the main concerns related to nuclear power generation. In addition the radioactivity of the waste remains at high levels for extremely long periods, therefore there are considerable technical issues related to handling and storage of the waste material. Current research is being carried out related to reactor types that may use the nuclear waste as fuel, reducing the timespan necessary to reach safe levels of radiation down to a few hundred years rather than thousands and millions of years. These are typically the American Fast Reactor and the Molten salt reactor. Another type of reactor being considered is the Thorium reactor using thorium without mixing it with uranium or plutonium as fuel. The waste from this reactor type remains radioactive for a few hundred years. LESSON 3: FUELS DEFINING FUELS A fuel is a substance that produces useful energy either through combustion or through nuclear reaction. An important property of a fuel is that the energy is released in a controlled manner and can be harnessed economically for domestic and industrial purposes. Wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel, kerosene, producer gas and oil gas are some of the common examples of fuels. Fuels that produce heat energy by combustion are termed as chemical fuels. During combustion, carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and phosphorus that are present in the fuel combine with oxygen and release energy. Fuel + O2 → Products + Heat C + O2 → CO2 + Heat 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + Heat COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR However, combustion is not always necessary for a fuel to produce heat. Energy can also be liberated by fission or fusion of nuclei. This energy is much greater than the energy released by chemical fuels, and such fuels are termed as nuclear fuels. Classification of Fuels Fuels can be classified on the basis of their (I) occurrence (II) physical state.  On the basis of occurrence, fuels are of two types (a) Primary Fuels or Natural Fuels - These are found to occur in nature and are used as such either without processing or after being processed to a certain extent, which does not alter the chemical constitution of the fuel. These are also known as fossil fuels. Examples include wood, peat, lignite, coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc. (b) Secondary Fuels or Derived Fuels - These are the fuels that are derived from primary fuels by further chemical processing, for example, coke, charcoal, kerosene, producer gas, water gas, etc.  On the basis of their physical state, fuels may be classified as follows: (A) Solid fuels (B) Liquid fuels (C) Gaseous fuels The classification can be summarised as shown in the following diagram. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR A. SOLID FUELS Solid fuel refers to various types of solid materials that are used as fuel to produce energy. The primary solid fuels commonly used are wood and coal. Wood Wood is being used as fuel from times immemorial. Freshly cut wood contains 25 to 50% moisture which reduces to 15% after drying the wood in air. The average composition of wood is: C = 55%; H = 6%; O = 43%; ash = 1%. Its calorific value is about 3500–4500 kcal/kg. It burns with a long and non-smoky flame leaving behind small amount of ash. Destructive distillation of wood at around 500 °C produces charcoal which is an excellent fuel equivalent to the best of fuels. Coal Coal is produced when the plant and animal debris are subjected to conditions of high temperature and pressure over millions of years. Hence, it is regarded as a fossil fuel. It chiefly comprises C, H, N and O besides non- combustible matter. Lesson 3 - Fuels (Agarwal page 1) https://energyfaculty.com/primary-energy-production/ B. LIQUID FUELS Liquid fuels are used extensively in industrial and domestic fields. Use of liquid fuels in internal combustion engines makes them very important fuels. 1. Petroleum Fuels The single largest source of liquid fuels is petroleum or crude oil (the term petroleum means rock oil. Latin word ―Petra‖ means rock; ―oleum‖ means oil) is a dark, greenish-brown viscous oil found deep inside the earth‘s crust. It is a mixture of hydrocarbons such as straight chain paraffins, cycloparaffins or naphthalene, olefins and aromatics along with small amount of organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Average composition of crude petroleum is: Classification of Petroleum Petroleum is classified into three categories according to its composition: 1. Paraffinic base petroleum It is mainly composed of straight chain saturated hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35H72 along with small amounts of naphthenes and aromatic hydrocarbons. 2. Naphthenic or asphaltic base petroleum It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthenes as main constituent along with smaller amount of paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons. 3. Mixed base petroleum It contains both paraffins and asphaltic hydrocarbons. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Refining of Petroleum Crude oil coming out from the oil well is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons containing sand and water in suspension. After removal of dirt, water, sulphur and other impurities, this oil is subjected to fractional distillation. This process of removing unwanted impurities and separating petroleum into useful fractions with different boiling ranges is called refining of petroleum. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR 2. Non Petroleum Fuels, Power Alcohol and Aviation Fuel a. Benzol It contains 70% benzene, 18% toluene and 6% xylene and rest other hydrocarbons and is obtained during the fractional distillation of light oil in the temperature range 80–170 °C. b. Power alcohol Power alcohol is a mixture of 5–25% ethyl alcohol with petrol and is used as a fuel in the internal combustion engines. c. Biodiesel Biodiesel is produced by the base catalysed transesterification of vegetable oils such as soyabean oil, palm oil, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, cotton oil, jojoba, jatropha and castor oil. d. Aviation fuels The fuels used in spacecraft and aircrafts should be compact, lightweight, occupy less space and produce more energy. Aircrafts use special type of petroleum-based fuels, which are of a higher quality than those used in road transport. C. GASEOUS FUELS Gaseous fuels can be obtained in many ways: a) From Nature Examples include natural gas and methane from coal mines. b) From Solid fuels Examples include producer gas, water gas, coal gas and blast furnace gas. c) From Petroleum Examples include refinery gases, LPG and gases from oil gasification. d) By Fermentation of organic wastes Examples include biogas. 1. Natural Gas Natural gas is generally found to be associated with petroleum in nature and occurs near coal mines or oil fields. It is used not only as a fuel for domestic and industrial purposes but also as a raw material in various chemical syntheses. Natural gas that is derived from oil wells may be dry or wet. 2. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) It is obtained by compressing natural gas to a high pressure of about 1000 atmospheres. These days CNG is used as substitute for petrol and diesel. It is very economical and a clean fuel. It is better than LPG and is preferred over gasoline or LPG. 3. Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) is commonly used as a domestic fuel, industrial fuel and a fuel in motor vehicles. Chemically, it is a mixture of C3 and C4 hydrocarbons of the corresponding alkane and alkene series. 4. Coal Gas It is obtained when coal is heated in the absence of air at about 1300 °C in gas retort or coke ovens. The fuel used for the purpose is a mixture of producer gas and air. 5. Oil Gas It is obtained by the cracking of kerosene oil. 6. Producer Gas It is a mixture of carbon monoxide (combustible gas) and nitrogen (non- combustible gas). 7. Water Gas It burns with a blue flame and is often termed as ‗blue gas‘. It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen with little amount of non-combustible gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Challenges of Fossil Fuels Air pollution Fossil fuel–based energy systems also emit substantial amounts of other pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), and particulate matter, all of which cause significant health, ecosystem, and economic damages. Climate change The problem that dominates the public discussion on energy is climate change. A climate crisis endangers the natural environment around us, our wellbeing today and the wellbeing of those who come after us. Greenhouse gases The world‘s CO2 emissions have been rising quickly and reached 36.6 billion tonnes in 2018. As long as we are emitting greenhouse gases their concentration in the atmosphere increases. To bring climate change to an end the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere needs to stabilize and to achieve this the world‘s greenhouse gas emissions have to decline towards net- zero. To bring emissions down towards net-zero will be one of the world‘s biggest challenges in the years ahead. But the world‘s energy problem is actually even larger than that, because the world has not one, but two energy problems. It is important to consider that different technology pathways pose different challenges from a commercialization perspective. To take biofuels as an example, even though there are commercial biofuels available today, their further expansion is not desirable due to the competition with food, limited environmental benefits, and their true cost given subsidies. This research should be underpinned by an analysis of the materials and energy embedded in that process to focus on areas with the potential to be cost-competitive in the long term. The materiality of the possible impact of different pathways is also contingent upon crucial improvements in crop productivity and waste availability to reduce feedstock costs, expand the supply, and minimize other impacts, making this a particularly important research area. RENEWABLE ENERGY To meet the rising global energy demand it is essential to focus on energy resources that are inexhaustible and abundantly available. These energy sources are termed as renewable or non-conventional energy sources. The various non-conventional energy sources are: 1. Solar Energy 2. Wind Energy 3. Energy from water/Hydroenergy 4. Tidal Energy 5. Wave Energy 6. Energy from Biomass 7. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 8. Geothermal Energy 9. Hydrogen Energy COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR EXAMINE ACTIVITY 4: WASTE ENERGY We have already alluded to the conversion of energy from one form to another a number of times in this module. The combustion of gasoline is not inherently useful, but when the heat released is harnessed in the engine of an automobile, the resulting work gets us where we need to go. All available observations, however, point to the idea that it is impossible to convert heat completely to work. The car‘s engine gets hot when it runs. The heat that warms the engine does not propel the car toward its destination. So a portion of the energy released by the combustion of gasoline does not contribute to the desired work of moving the car. In terms of the energy economy, this energy can be considered wasted. One common way to obtain work from a system is to heat it: heat flows into the system and the system does work. But in practice, the amount of heat flow will always exceed the amount of useful work achieved. The excess heat may contribute to thermal pollution or we commonly call now as global warming. The efficiency of conversion from heat to work can be expressed as a percentage. Typical efficiencies for some common conversion processes are shown in a Table on the right: → It is shown there that using an electric heater: the energy conversion is from electrical energy to thermal energy and most of the time it converts 100% electrical to thermal. While the poorest conversion is that of an incandescent lamp which can only produce 5% light from the electrical source. Perform the following: 1. Aside from electric heater and drier; choose just one device from the list. 2. Conduct a Google search on this device. 3. Make a discussion paper following guide below: a. Describe this device and explain how it works using the energy input. b. Finally, make a suggestion as to how you can improve the energy conversion efficiency of this device. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Rubrics for checking the discussion paper: Criterion Expert (20 points) Accomplished (16) Capable (12 points) Beginner (8 points) QUALITY OF -Piece was written in -Piece was written in -Piece had little style or -Piece no style or WRITING an extraordinary style an interesting style & voice voice & voice voice -Give some new - Give no new -Very informative & -Somewhat information but poorly information and poorly well organized. informative & well organized organized organized. GRAMMER, -Virtually no spelling, -Few spelling, -A number of spelling & -So many spelling, USAGE & punctuation & punctuation & punctuation or punctuation & MECHANICS grammatical errors grammatical errors grammatical errors grammatical errors that it interfere with the meaning Note: Any unsatisfactory submission will be advised to resubmit. EVALUATE ACTIVITY 5: WRITTEN EVALUATION 1. If you are asked to distinguish a liquid from a fine powder, what level of understanding or perspective is enough to make the distinction? 2. Some farmers use ammonia, NH3, as a fertilizer. This ammonia is stored in liquid form. Use the particulate perspective to show the transition from liquid ammonia to gaseous ammonia. 3. Is it always true, when a country has high energy consumption it would also have a good economic development? 4. What is the kinetic energy of a single molecule of oxygen if it is traveling at 1.5 × 103 m/s? (Show your solutions.) 5. Calculate heat (q) when a system does 54J of work and its energy decreases by 72J? 6. A metal radiator is made from 26.0 kg of iron. The specific heat of iron is 0.449 J/g °C. How much heat must be supplied to the radiator to raise its temperature from 25.0 to 55.0°C? 7. List down at least 10 fuel energy which are already available here in Philippines? 8. List down at least 5 renewable energy which are already available here in Philippines. Explain how each is advantageous as a fuel source for the Filipinos. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022 LEARNING MODULE IN organic MOLECULES AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR Answer key ACTIVITY 1 1 B False B Clay Powder B Strength C To bind sand/stone with water together D To transform cement into its glue like form ACTIVITY 2 1 Non-rechargeable: Lithium Batteries Alkaline Batteries Carbon Zinc Batteries Silver Oxide Batteries Zinc Air Batteries Rechargeable: Lithium-ion NiCd NiMH Source: https://www.webstaurantstore.com/guide/923/batteries- buying-guide.html 2 Our different needs over time have led to the development of a huge array of battery types. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & INFORMATION tECHNOLOGY BS ABE, BS CE, BS ECE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2022