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# مكتبة المأمون الجامعة ## الفسلجة ### قسم تقنيات الاشعة والسونار #### المرحلة الاولى ##### ) الكورس الاول ) ###### (1) ####### د. ضحى المكتبة الرئيسية والمعتمدة لكلية المأمون الجامعة 2024 2025 # كلية المأمون الجامعة ## قسم تقنيات الاشعة والسونار ### المحاضرة #### الاولى والثانية ##### علم ا...

# مكتبة المأمون الجامعة ## الفسلجة ### قسم تقنيات الاشعة والسونار #### المرحلة الاولى ##### ) الكورس الاول ) ###### (1) ####### د. ضحى المكتبة الرئيسية والمعتمدة لكلية المأمون الجامعة 2024 2025 # كلية المأمون الجامعة ## قسم تقنيات الاشعة والسونار ### المحاضرة #### الاولى والثانية ##### علم الفسلجة العامة ###### General Physiology ####### م.م . ضحى فالح # Physiology: The study of how living organisms function, including such processes as nutrition, movement, and reproduction. The study of physiology is, in a sense, the study of life. It asks questions about the internal workings of organisms and how they interact with the world around them. Physiology tests how organs and systems within the body work, how they communicate, and how they combine their efforts to make conditions favorable for survival. Human physiology, specifically, is often separated into subcategories; these topics cover a vast amount of information. # The Cell The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The simplest organisms consist of single cells, whereas humans are composed of multiple cells. An average-sized cell is one-fifth the size of the smallest you can make on a sheet of paper with a sharp pencil! But despite their extremely small size, cells are complex living structures. Cells have many characteristics in common; however, most cells are also specialized to perform specific functions. The human body is made up of many populations of specialized cells. # Cell Structure 1. Cells are highly organized units containing organelles, which perform specific functions. 2. The nucleus contains genetic material, and cytoplasm is the living material between the nucleus and the cell membrane. # FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL 1. Cell metabolism and energy use. The chemical reactions that occur within cells are collectively called cell metabolism. Energy released during metabolism is used for cell activities, such as the synthesis of new molecules, muscle contraction, and heat production, which helps maintain body temperature. 2. Synthesis of molecules. Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. 3. Communication. Cells produce and receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to communicate with one another. For example, nerve cells communicate with one another and with muscle cells, causing muscle cells to contract. 4. Reproduction and inheritance. Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual. Specialized cells (sperm cells and oocytes) transmit that genetic information to the next generation. # Cell Organelle A small organ-like structure present inside the cell is called a cell organelle. It has a particular structural makeup and performs a specific function. Depending upon the presence or absence of membrane. # Structure and Functions of Cells Structure and functions of different cell inclusions are as follows. | Cell Organelle | Occurrence/ Characteristic & Structure | Function | |-----|------|----| | Cell Membrane/ Plasma Membrane | • Present in both plant cell and animal cell. Selectively Permeable: Allows the materials in and out of the cell. Made up of bi lipid layer and protein | • Encloses the contents of the cell. • Provides shape: animal cell. • Allows transport: by Diffusion and Osmosis | | Cell Wall | • Present only in a plant cell. Hard and rigid. | • Protection Gives shape | | Cytoplasm | | • Contains enzymes | | Nucleus | • Contains ۸۰ - ۹۰% water and many organic and inorganic compounds. • Contains DNA, RNA, Protein, nucleolus, and Chromatin network | DNA which controls the hereditary characters | | Mitochondria (The Power House of The Cell / Storage Batteries) | -Double membranous structure. - Self-duplicates. -The main seat of respiration. -Stores energy in the form of ATP molecules. | | | Golgi Bodies (Shipping Department of Cell) | Discovered by Camillo Golgi in ۱۸۹۸. Contains Sac like Cisternae and Vesicles. | Modification, Packaging, and transport of materials | | Endoplasmic Reticulum (Framework of Cell) | A network of membranes | -Forms the skeletal framework of the cell. -Transport of materials from one cell to other. -Formation of lysosomes, Golgi bodies and vacuoles | | Vacuole | tonoplast and filled with cell sap | liquid or solid food, toxic byproduct. Provide rigidity to plant cell | | Ribosomes (Protein Factories) | • Without a membrane is composed of one large and one small subunit in eukaryote | Synthesis of Proteins | | Lysosomes and peroxisomes | both made up of RNA • are membrane bound sacs containing enzymes. Within the cell, • Present in all animal cells and few plant cells | lysosomes break down phagocytized material. Peroxisomes break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide. | # ORGANELLES -Nucleus 1. The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membranes that form nuclear pores at many points on the surface of the nucleus. 2. DNA and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus as chromatin. DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls cell activities. 3. Nucleoli consist of RNA and proteins and are the sites of ribosomal subunit assembly. -Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 1. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. It is a major site of protein synthesis. 2. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached and is a major site of lipid synthesis. Centrioles Centrioles, located in the centrosome, are made of microtubules. They facilitate chromosome movement during cell division. Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli 1. Cilia move substances over the surface of cells. 2. Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells. 3. Microvilli increase the surface area of cells and thus aid in absorption. # Transport Across a Cell Membrane The cell membrane is one of the great multi-taskers of biology. It provides structure for the cell, protects cytosolic contents from the environment, and allows cells to act as specialized units. This phospholipid bilayer determines what molecules can move into or out of the cell. # Movement Across a Membrane and Energy There are two major ways that molecules can be moved across a membrane, and the distinction has to do with whether or not cell energy is used. Passive mechanisms like diffusion use no energy, while active transport requires energy to get done. # Active Transport Sometimes the body needs to move molecules against their gradient. This requires energy from the cell. # Diffusion A solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes and the solvent. Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is called the solvent. Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in solution. This process is called diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration within a solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is uniform. # Osmosis Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell membrane,from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration . # Cell Division Cell division: is the division of a cell into two cells, then two cells, into four, and so on. There are two types of cell division, which are equal division (which occurs in somatic cells in living organisms) and meiosis (which occurs in reproductive cells in living organisms) . 1- mitosis 2- meiosis # Apoptosis Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells. Apoptosis regulates the number of cells within various tissues of the body. # Body Fluids Human beings are creatures that are primarily composed of water. It is the essence of life and the aqueous base solution in which all essential biochemical processes occur that produce life. Humans are approximately ٧٥% water by mass as infants and 50% to ٦٠% water by mass as adults. # Blood Blood is a viscous fluid which circulates through a closed system of blood vessels. # Composition of Blood It consists of two parts, a fluid portion which is yellow in color called plasma and cellular elements which include different types of cells: 1. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes). 2. White blood cells (Leukocytes) of different types (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Monocytes and Lymphocytes ). 3. Platelets (Thrombocytes). # Formed elements include: - Erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs) - Platelets (cellular fragments) - Leukocytes (white blood cells, WBCS) - Granulocytes - Neutrophils - Eosinophils -Basophils - Agranulocytes - Lymphocytes - Monocytes The major function of R.B.C. is to transport hemoglobin which in turn carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. R.B.C. are biconcave discs having a mean diameter of about ٧.٥ micrometers and a thickness at the thickest point of ٢.٠ micrometers and in the center of micrometers or less. The average volume is ۹۰- 95 mm3. # Erythrocyte Structure # Top View 7.5 Micrometers # Sectional view 2.0 Micrometers The shapes of R.B.C., can change remarkably as the cells pass through capillaries. In normal men, the average number of R.B.C., per cubic millimeter is ٥,٤ millions ( ۳۰۰,۰۰۰) and in women is ٤,٨ millions (۳۰۰,۰۰۰). This difference is due to the presence of testosterone hormone in male, this causes stimulation of the bone marrow which produces the R.B.C. The concentration of Hb in R.B.C., is about ٣٤% every ۱۰۰ ml of R.B.C. contain ٣٤ gm of Hb. Hemoglobin is a pigment in R.B.С. The average concentration of Hb in the male is about ( ۱۳-۱۸) gm/ ۱۰۰ ml blood. In female is about ( ۱۲-۱۶) ۱۰۰ ml blood, every gm of Hb can combine with ۱,۳۹ml of O۲. In male each ۱۰۰ ml of blood contain over ۲۱ ml of O۲ while in female it contains ۱۹ ml of O۲. # Hematocrit The ratio between plasma and cellular elements is ٥٥% plasma to ٤٥% cellular element (mainly R.B.C.) this ratio is called hematocrit or packed cell volume (P.C.V.). When the percentage of R.B.C. is below ٤٥% this causes anemia, while the percentage is above ٤٥%, this causes polycythemia. # Centrifuge - Withdraw blood - Plasma (٥٥% of whole blood) - Buffy coat: leukocytes and platelets (<1% of whole blood) - Erythrocytes (٤٥% of whole blood) # Plasma The fluid of blood, it contains protein, organic and inorganic substances of blood. There are three types of protein in plasma: 1. Albumin, is present in the concentration of ٤,٥gm/dl, its primary function is to cause osmotic pressure at the capillary membrane. 2. Globulin, is present in the concentration ٢,٥ gm/dl are divide into a, β and γ. α and ẞ function in transporting substances by combining with them, y to a lesser degree. ẞ globulin play a special role in protecting the body against infection. 3. Fibrinogen, is present in the concentration of (۰٫۳ gm/dl) it's of basic importance in blood clotting. The total value of plasma protein is about gm/ ۱۰۰ ml plasma. # Blood functions 1. The main function of the blood is to transport gases O۲ and CO۲. O۲ is transported from lungs to the tissue of the body and CO۲ is transported in opposite direction that is from the tissue to the lungs. 2. Is the delivery of nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and vitamins to the tissue. 3. Distribution of heat, heat is generated by deep organs in the body, then it's distributed to all parts of the body. 4. Regulation of ions concentration and PH through the constant exchange of electrolytes between tissue fluids. 5. Protective function. The W.B.C. play an important role in protection function of the blood in which they defend the body against infection of bacteria, viruses and other foreign bodies. # Genesis of R.B.C. R.B.C.s are derived from the cell known as Hemocytoblast which is formed from primodial stem cells located in bone marrow. The Hemocytoblast forms the Basophils erythrocytes (begins the synthesis of Hb). Then it becomes Polychromatophil erythroblast then the nucleus shrinks and the cell becomes Normoblast and then the nucleus extruded. At the same time endoplasmic reticulum reabsorbed and the cell called Reticulocyte when the reticulum is completely reabsorbed the cell then is a mature Erythrocyte. R.B.C. are produced during early embryonic life by the yolk sac, the spleen and liver begin to produce R.B.C.s, during later embryonic life at age ۲۰, bone (whether flat or long) begins to produce R.B.C.s and flat bones produce R.B.C., such as bones of the skull, ribs and sternum. The increase of R.B.C.s count under normal value is called Polycythemia. # Genesis of RBC - Proerythroblast - Basophie erythroblast - Polychromatophs erythroblast - Orthochromatic erythroblast - Reticulocyte - Erythrocytes - Megaloblastic anemia - Erythroblastosis fetalis - Microcytic hypochromic anemia - Sickle cell anemia There are two types of polycythemia: 1. Physiological Polycythemia (secondary) : Whenever the tissue becomes hypotoxic because of too little oxygen in the atmosphere, such as at high altitudes, or because of failure of delivery of oxygen to tissues, as occurs in cardiac failure, the blood forming organs automatically produce large quantities of R.B.C.s, the blood count is generally ٧-٦ million/mm³ 2. Pathological Polycythemia (Vera): Which occur during the pathological condition such as cancerous conditions, in which cancer stimulates great number of R.B.C.s to be produced. The R.B.C. count may be ۷-۸ million/mm and the hematocrit ٧٠-٦٠ # Anemia Anemia means a deficiency of R.B.C.s, which can be caused either by too rapid loss or by too slow production of R.B.C.s, There are different types of anemia: 1.Blood loss anemia: This s caused by loss of large volume of blood usually when there is a blood loss, the plasma is replaced quickly while the R.B.C.s, takes few weeks to be replaced. This is caused in some chronic blood such as (Hemorrhoid). 2.Bone marrow aplasia (aplastic anemia):: This means the loss of function of bone marrow due to drug poisoning or Gamma-ray irradiation. 3.Hemolysis of R.B.C.s: Resulting from many of causes such as: a. Drug poisoning. b. Hereditary diseases such as (sickle cell diseases, spherocytosis, Hbs). c. Erythroblastosis fetalis, a disease of the newborn in which antibodies from the mother destroy red cells in the baby. 4. Thalasemia (Cooly's anemia): It's also called Mediterranean anemia, there is a deficiency of globulin, for example: Deficiency of polypeptide chain which causes decrease in concentration of Hb. 5. Maturation failure or (pernicious anemia): Because of lack of vitamin B۱۲ or folic acid. Vitamin B۱۲ is an essential nutrients for all cells of the body and growth of tissues. Vitamin B۱۲ is required for synthesis of DNA, lack of this causes failure of nuclear marutation and division and therefore inhibits R.B.C.s production. When the vitamin B۱۲ replaced by intestinal bacteria, is called extrinsic factor and there is other factor called intrinsic factor. B۱۲ should combine with intrinsic factor, if the intrinsic factor is absent, then B۱۲ will not absorbed this disease is called pernicious anemia, in which the basic abnormality is an atrophic gastric mucosa. In pernicious anemia R.B.C.s are larger than the normal and undergo hemolysis easily. # Destruction of R.B.C.s R.B.C.s are delivered from the bone marrow into the circulatory system an average of ۱۲۰ days, have no nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria, they have cytoplasmic enzymes that are capable of metabolizing glucose and forming small amount of ATP, which serves the red cell in: 1. Maintaining the pliability of the cell membrane. 2. Maintaining membrane transport of ions. 3. Keeping the iron of the cell hemoglobin in the ferrous form, rather than the ferric form. 4. Preventing oxidation of the proteins in the red cell These metabolic system of the red cell become progressively less active with time, and they become more and more fragile, because their life processes wear out. # Effect of anemia on circulatory system: It effects the viscosity of the blood from (۳-۱٫٥) and decrease resistance of blood flow in the peripheral blood vessels and also cardiac output increase ۲ times. Hypoxia cause increase in return of blood to the heart, increasing the cardiac output to a still higher level. # Effect of polycythemia on circulatory system: Here, increase blood volume, decrease in the rate of venous return to heart, sluggish blood flow through vessels, increase circulation time and increase in the deoxygenated Hb.