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Midterm October 8 Prokaryotic cells Bacteria · No nucleus · unicellular (Each cell carries out all of life processes structure 1. CytOSOl : thick fluid...
Midterm October 8 Prokaryotic cells Bacteria · No nucleus · unicellular (Each cell carries out all of life processes structure 1. CytOSOl : thick fluid cell protein constantly floating around complex mixture of enzymes and many other molecules in water Where a lot of chemical reactions take place. 2 Plasma membrane Not the cell wall helps regulate homeostasis Represents the boundary between cell + environment (separates the 2) Responsible for the exchange with the environment (things moving in and out of the cell) made up of a phospholipid bilayer /membrane structure semi-permeable membrane osmosis - non-polar tails (gets Isolated) , > non-polar layer makes it relatively impermeable to polar molecules - - Wanders across the membrane (no impeding from the plasma membrane Different to polar molecules) + O2 , CO2 , llpids -> Diffuse through freely (small non-polar > polar head / bumps into surroundings) ex : water molecules - > - polar molecules , ex : water , will get pulled back toward polar zones if they wander toward non-polar zones > small polar molecules diffuse through slowly - > - H20 , ethanol - larger polar molecules and lons don't diffuse through - glucose + protein embedded Inside the phospholipid bilayer - Materials must enter or exit the cell in one of several ways energy) - Passively (Does not cost the cell any chemical - Diffusion molecules that can pass through the phospholipid bilayer moves w/ the concentration gradient larger polar molecules and lons have great difficulty passing through bilayer water can pass slowly many important molecules (O2 , CO2) pass through easily high concentration of a substance going toward a lower concentrated area - Osmosis (Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane - Facilitated Diffusion (through channel proteins) a. Channel Proteins · embedded in the phospholipid bilayer · charged Ions require protein channel provides an opening for small molecules to pass through flows along concentration gradient > - certain molecules (dependent on shape , size other properties movement through diffusion (no chemical energy No control over direction of movement · some are gated and may open/close depending on conditions · Aquaporins facilitate the movement of water · : b) carrier proteins provides an opening for larger molecules to enter plasma membrane by diffusion picks up specific molecules on one side of the membrane and releases them on the other (w/o chemical energy no control over direction · not gated -ATP - Actively (costs the cell chemical energy) - Active Transport requires energy provided chemically by the cell (pumping certain molecules across the plasma membranes energy to - requires allows cells to maintain higher (or lower) concentrations of certain substances than in the cells environment (goes against the concentration gradient) + cytosis transport via a pocket in the membrane · Endocytosis : A particle outside the cell is enveloped by part of the plasma membrane forming a vacuole Inside the cell Exocytosis : The particle inside the cell (vacuole) may be ejected from the cell When the vacuole fuses with the plasma membrane and releases It's contents Into the cell's environment. 3 Ribosomes Floating around in the cell site of protein Synthesis (where the proteins are built 4. Nucleoid where most of the genetic information is made up of a single loop of double-stranded DNA (bacterial chromosome * optional features 1 cell wall. (majority have rigid (not hard , not soft though either gives shell shape and protects cell membrane from bursting. 2 Flagellum (most don't have one or more hair like projections rotates to provide motility (allows cell to swim around. 3 Thylakoid provides a membrane for photosynthesis 4. Capsule (capsule sheath) layer outside cell wall · sticky (sticks to other cells) protects cells from attack or dehydration (slows down water loss) S. Plasmid Accessory genetic information Eukaryotic Cells Animal cell structure 1. chromatin most of the genetic Information · Individual chromosomes are diffused + chromosomes are made up of one double-stranded DNA molecule w/ associated proteins. Nucleolus 2 surrounded by the chromatic life of assembly of ribosomes 3. Nuclear Envelope Double phospholipid membrane contains nuclear pores (allowing things in and out of the nucleus 4 Nucleus. Defining feature of a Eukaryotic cell contains the chromatin , nucleolus and nuclear envelope · DNA protected by it /keeps environment separate. 5 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum synthesis of lipids (including phospholipids · Destruction of drugs + toxins 6. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Ribosomes are stuck to it synthesis of proteins to be packaged Enzymes kept inside · are 7. Vesicles comes from rough Endoplasmic Reticulum primarily small membrane sack of material made up of phospholipid bilayer membrane · O. Golgi Apparatus stuff delivered to Golgi Proteins from ribosome and packaging modifying sorting proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum - , 9 vacuole. larger membrane sack of material (larger than a vesicle Lysosome - Type of vacuole containing digestive enzymes /Digestive enzymes help break stuff down/cut chemical bonds 10. Mitochondrion organelles powerhouse of the cell * Cytoplasm (between plasma main source of energy (ATP) for the cell membrane and nuclear envelope Outer membrane : * cytosol Semi-fluid : - similar to the eukaryotic plasma membrane Inner membrane · - similar to the prokaryotic plasma membrane - Inher fluid : matrix (like cytosol - ribosomes floating around (similar to that of the prokaryotic cells) - has its own loop of DNA 11 · Cytoskeleton gives the cell shape · Allows cell movement used for Intracellular transport 12 Centrosome. important in organizing cytoskeleton outside surface of the membrane : extracellular matrix (Doesn't have cell wall Animal cells) Strengthens tissues Helps cells to react to environment 13. Cholesterol Restricted to animal cells Non-polar (Doesn't dissolve in water therefore harder to transport · Helps maintain membrane fluidity * Receptor Proteins : some fit, some don't allows certain cells to respond to specific chemicals (1 e tastebud receptors). * specific chemical Enzymes : protein that facilitates a reaction * identification markers allows cells to be recognized by other cells EX Blood : Types (The way your body reacts to blood transfusions) * Junction Proteins Tight Bind cells together · * cytosis : (same in prokaryotic cell) Transport via the folding of a membrane Endocytosis Exocytosis /same as phagocytosis and pinocytosis for a liquid · + Plant cell (multicellular 1. cell wall 2. Central vacuole storage space for water and other molecules. 3 Chloroplast Not all plants have where photosynthesis occurs · contains outer membrane + inner membrane stroma > Similar to cytosol > contains loop of DNA - - > - contains ribosomes thylakoid > - floats around in the stromd > - provides a membrane for photosynthesis Plasmodesma * little channels that connect one cell to the next all connected (share cell membrane allows passage of cytosol from cell to cell) makes easy to share resources/materials) Fungal Cells eukaryotic · cell wall (made up of Chitin) big pores between cells (allows organelles to move from cell to cell) no plasmodesmata Has Cytoskeleton · · No centrosome No Chloroplast · Don't : Bacterial cells Animal Cells Plant cells nucleus cell wall centrosome · · endoplasmic reticulum plasmodesmata Lysosomes · · · Golgi Apparatus chloroplast · · mitochondrion central vacuole chloroplast · vesicles/vacuoles centrosomes Metabolism When enzymes transform certain molecules into other molecules through multi-step pathways metabolic pathway · > catabolic larger molecules are broken down into smaller pieces releasing energy In the process - : smaller molecules are assembled into /requiring energy > anabolic a larger molecule - : synthesizes - ways nature molecules sequence of connected reactions > particular - ATP Energy (Adenosine Triphosphate) > made up of Ribose (sugar) Adenine (Base) and 3 phosphates - , -high energy molecule used to provide energy in cells - Abundance of negative charges on phosphates and since like charges repel one another there is a lot of potential energy. Because of this the phosphate at the end of the chain breaks off becoming App (Adenosine Diphosphate) which is more stable - HOW it Works : undergoes hydrolysis (addition of water transfers one of its phosphate group to allow for the release In energy needed for other reactions to occur or to pump lons across the membrane against the concentration gradient (1. e active transport) - ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) lower for of ATP (less energy + After ATP becomes ADP , ADP can then be phosphorylated to become ATP again to then provide energy for cellular processes , cycle continues High Energy Molecules Carrying High Energy Electrons 1. NADH 2. FADH2 3. NADPH LOW Energy Molecules wo High-Energy Electrons + 1. NAD 2. FAD + +. NADP 3 cellular Respiration C6H1206 + 6826CO2 + 6Hz0 + energy converts glucose into ATP energy through 3 Steps : 1 Glycolysis Schemical.. 2 The Citric Acid cycle reactions occur amongst 3 steps o the help of enzymes. 3 Oxidative phosphorylation 1. Glycolysis can operate with and without the presence of oxygen that breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate metabolic pathway glucose Energy released is used to convert ADP to ATP and NAD+ tO NADH · Requires an investment of 2 ATPs to begin the process al begins w/ 6 Carbon molecules (from glucose (6) , uses 2 ATPs to generate more energy thus becoming ADP b) (6 is broken down into 2 C3(G3P) - With the help of the energy from the phosphates (from Atp) that attack to the 2 3-carbon molecule C) Each C3(G3P) contains a phosphate and an WAD + > - WAD" gets reduced (an electron gets added to it-it- that will be useful In the electron transport chain) Into NADH > - 2 ADP then turns into 2 ATP + then turns into pyruvates : We begin glycolysis W/ glucose , 2ATPs , 2 NAD + and endw/2 pyruvates , 2 NADHS and 4ATPs (net energy profit of 2 ATPs) occurs in the cytoplasm /both eukaryotic + prokaryotic cells). The 2 Citric Acid Cycle A cyclical metabolic pathway that breaks down pyruvate into 3 CO2 used to convert ADP Into ATP , NAD + into NADH and FAD + IntO FADH2 > - Whole idea is to generate NADHS , FADH2S and ATPs 2 pyruvates (from glycolysis) oxidizes - pyruvate oxidation Removes one of the carbons from the pyruvate molecule making it 2-carbon compound (acetyl COA) and reduces NAD + into : a NADH (reducing = + a H electron is added > the carbon that was removed leaves and finds an to attach itself to CO2 and leaves the oxygen to become - system The Acetyl COA((2) is Catalyzed by enzymes - C2 reacts with Cy to form C6 Where : NAD + reduces Into NADH and releases a Carbon to form CO2 that occurs at 16 happens at CJ (NAD + -NADH formed same thing and CO2 is - a - we are then left w/ C4 again where ADP gains a phosphate and turns Into ATP and then Oxidizes FAD" Into FADH2 and reduces NAD + to NADH · Cycle ends + will begin to repeat in eukaryotes · : > - occurs in the matrix of the Mitochondrion · In prokaryotes : - occurs in the cytoplasm · From 1 pyruvate we get : 3 - 4 NADH -> 1 FADH2 since we have 2 pyruvates though we get a total of 8 NADHS , 2 FADH2 and LATPs - 1 ATP 3 Electron. Transport Chain Coxidative Phosphorylation) A chain of molecules uses energy from NADH and FADH2 to generate a H + gradient Where NADH and FADH2 get oxidized · - NADH gets oxidized and produces about 2 5 ATPS. - FADH2 gets oxidized and produces about 1 5. ATPs /lower Energy state = why the don't generate as much ATP) After NADH loses an electron (oxidized) , the electrons lost are transported over a series of molecules containing lower energy states used to reduce O2 Into H2O - When an electron goes from a high energy state to a low energy state it releases energy - NADHs release energy after bonding w/ an enzyme The energy released is then used to pump protons across the Inner membrane of the mitochondrion - pumps Hydrogen into Inner membrane From the high energy state of NADH to low energy state of 20 , they've supplied the energy to protein complexes that span our cristae (high curvature structure In the inner membrane of mitochondrion that are crucial for the production of ATP) to pump #+ protons from the matrix to the outer membrane /H gradient + · once the gradient forms, protons want to go back Inside the matrix (where ATP is formed) but aren't able to because the cristae is a semi- permeable membrane. : they need ATP synthase to get back in ATP Synthase + - channel protein for H + Ions ( enzyme + - Chemiosmosis produces ATP using an enzyme > - prokaryotes : cell membrane ~ eukaryotes : matrix of the Mitochondria As H+ protons enter the ATP synthase It allows the structure In the middle (axle) to spin - energy from the proton gradient is being used to spin the axle + forms ATP An ADP molecule attaches to the protein , phosphate attaches to another part Can ADP and ap) as the middle turns - proteins are continuously colliding.: Some proteins will squeeze the App and phosphate together to form ATP Fermentation cellular respiration wo the presence of oxygen · only goes through glycolysis /Citric acid Cycle Needs O2 to operate +.. no electron transport chain either - an extra step is added NAD + In order for to glycolysis to regenerate glycolysis to keep producing ATP allows NADH to give its electrons to an electron acceptor Conversion of NADH to NAD + to ~ produce energy occurs in the cytoplasm of both eukaryotic + prokaryotic cells metabolic process of converting carbohydrates Into lactate or alcohol 1. Alcoholic Fermentation - glycolysis occurs · 2 net ATP , 2 pyruvate , I NADHS pyruvate (C3) IS used to produce 2 CO2 and 2 ethanol and the derivative of pyruvate acts as an > - Extra Step to regenerate NAD + : 2 electron acceptor to Oxidize NADH Into NAD + so glycolysis can start over again. Lactic Acid Fermentation 2 -> In muscle cells (in humans) during exercise - glycolysis occurs... 2 net ATP , 2 pyruvate , I NADHS - Extra Step to regenerate NAD +: 2 pyruvate is used to produce lactic acid , the pyruvate is the electron acceptor in this case and will therefore cause NADH to Oxidize to NAD + So glycolysis can start over again physics wavelength : Distance from one complete wave cycle frequency How many waves pass at a given time · : electromagnetic waves · : > wavesIn the electromagnetic field - - also known as electromagnetic radiation - acts like a wave + sometimes particles + occurs In packets called photons -Amount of energy carried In a wavelength/frequency depends on the energy of the photon I. e: High wave length = low frequency = low energy photon or low wavelength High frequency high energy photon = = gamma rays : A photon has enough energy to destroy molecules radio Waves A photon has insufficient energy to affect : a molecule much microwaves : Photons bombard food to heat up visible light : A photon has just enough energy to trigger chemical reactions pigment · - A molecule that absorbs visible light - When a pigment absorbs light , it absorbs the energy from the photons - Each pigment absorbs only light from certain wavelengths Photosynthesis 6202 + 6H201 Catt1206 + 602 The use of light energy to synthesize carbohydrates out of CO2 and H2 > uses pigments (such as chlorophyll) to capture light - Chlorophyll · - Doesn't absorb green light , it reflects it = why plants appear green - Absorbs red and blue light - found in the Chloroplast (specifically the thylakoid) in plant cells (eukaryotes that occur -2 major processes : 1. Light Dependent Reactions. 2 Light independentReactions (1. e Calvin cycle) 1. Light Dependent Reactions occurs in the thylakoid (little compartments In the chloroplast that contain pigment A light particle will strike photosystem 2 · · It excites the electrons in the chlorophyll causing , it to lose electrons which will then flow Into an electron carrier to where it can pump protons (from the , stroma to the inner thylakoid Because the chlorophyll lost electrons , It needs to replenish. : takes electrons from Ho and oxidizes it to become Oz(gas) > 1H20 1102 IH +: H2O loses 2 electrons to Photosystem 2 - + After it finishes pumping protons , It will make its way to Photosystem I and transfer the electrons + through this journey , the electrons have lost some of its energy -to gain more energy electrons are struck : by another photon of light (photon releases energy to the electron) where the electron will then get excited and because it has more energy It allows the electrons to be carried to an + enzyme that'll reduce NADP to NADPH H + lons then go through ATP synthase where ADP is turned into ATP the - photons that excited the electrons in Chlorophyll went to lower and lower energy states (In thylakoid membrane). : released energy which caused It to be pumped across the membrane - High concentration of H + go through ATP synthase and drive axial to turn to produce ATP once ATP and NADPH are produced , the calvin cycle may begin (O2 is also produced 2. Calvin cycle Doesn't require photons (light) only : ATP , NADPH and CO2 · occurs In the stroma (outside the thylakoid) G3P (a Cz and a PORT IS used to build Carbohydrates (1 e 2 GSP. = /glucose Acquires CO2 from atmosphere as well as ATP : NADPH from Light Dependent Reaction and begins cycle > - starts WI 6002 + CO2 reacts u/a - energy used is from 12 ATPs (from 12 ADPs) and 12 NADPHs (from 12 NADP + ( - From the 12 C3 molecule 10 gets reused (requires energy : 6 ATPs will release that energy which will then turn Into 6ADPs and then is recycled into C5 again to be reacted ul CO2 and the cycle restarts 2 fuse together to give us I glucose carbon fixation : Calvin Cycle allows us to take carbon in its gaseous state (CO2) and turn it into a carbon structure (glucose cyclic electron flow : Allows light reactions to generate App even when there's no Atp or Calvin cycle Cell DIVISION · In prokaryotic cells organisms (cells) reproduce through Binary Fission - - Binary Fission : asexual reproduce a single cell is split into 2 daughter cells. each daughter cell is almost identical to the parent cell (especially in regard to its DNA) · cells in eukaryotic · - the DNA Is found In a number of individual chromosomes inside of a membrane-bound nucleus - Interphase A mitotically active cell spends most ofI ts time here · Divided into 3 parts 1. Gap1 (G1) : cell builds proteins and grows larger. 2 Synthesis of DNA (s) : cell continues to grow + is copying Its nuclear DNA - by the end of the Speriod , the DNA has been Copied (twice as much) but the copies stick together. 3 Gap > (G2) : cell is still growing + final preparations are made for cell division once the cell Is ready to divide it enters the mitotic phase - Mitotic Phase (Diploid cell division occurs · responsible for reproduction in unicellular eukaryotes and for growth and tissue repair in multicellular eukaryotes consists of 2 parts · a) Mitosis (Division of the nucleus i) Divided into 5 parts : Prophase prometaphase metaphase anaphase , telophase , , , b) Cytokinesis (Division of the whole cell) After cytokinesis : 2 daughter cells (each almost identical to the parent cell). Each daughter cell can then begin G1 - main focus to ensure the : daughter cells receive all the unmodified genetic information from the parent cell genetic information is encoded in molecules of DNA (which are mixed w/ certain proteins to form chromatin) which is dispersed Inside the nucleus during Interphase - In the nucleus of a human cell , there are 46 chromosomes , each composed of a Double-stranded DNA molecule we associated proteins Mitosis (in plants) · 1. Prophase chromosomes condense and become visible nucleolus disappears and spindle , begins to form around centrosome. Prometaphase 2 nuclear envelope breaks up , spindle attaches to centromeres and begin to pull on the chromosomes 3. Metaphase spindle pulling on the centromeres causes the chromosomes to line up along the metaphase plate 4. Anaphase chromatids break free of each other and are pulled to either end of the cell by the spindle seach free chromatid chromosome = s. Telophase spindle begins to disappear chromosomes begin , to disperse nucleoli begin , to form nuclear envelopes , begin to assemble and a new cell wall (cell plate begins to form · MItOSiS (In Animals) 1. Prophase cell rounds up as cytoskeleton breaks down , chromosomes condense and becomes visible , nucleolus disappears spindle starts to form · ,. 2 Prometaphase nuclear envelope breaks up , spindle attaches to centromeres and begins to pull on chromosomes , centromere (w/centrioles) begin to move to either end of the cell. 3 Metaphase spindle pulling on the centromeres causes the chromosomes to line up along the metaphase plate 4. Anaphase chromatids break free from each other and are pulled to either end of the cell by the spindle. Cell elongates > - each free chromatid is now a chromosome s. Telophase spindle begins to disappear chromosomes begin to disperse , nucleoli begin to form , nuclear envelopes begin to assemble , cell begins , cytokinesis pluches : in (cleavage furrow) = 2 cells zygote (single cell) · > - fertilized egg Reproductive cells (gamete > - sperm , eggs (fertilizes together one complete set of genes/chromosomes - > - # of chromosomes = n /Humans = 23) Diploid (having two alleles at each locus Humans are neither haploid nor alploid · + two complete sets of genes/chromosomes + # of chromosomes = an (Humans 46) : During sexual reproduction = 2 cells (gametes) fuse to form a new cell - In order for the new cell to have the appropriate # of chromosomes (Diploid) each gamete must have half as many chromosomes /haploid Melosis (in animals) · > - not a part of the cell cycle -process that terminates we the production of haploid cells (gametes + 2 Cell Divisions 3 a) Melosis I Results In four daughter cells b) MelOSIS # MelOSIS I 1. Prophase I chromosomes condense next to their homologue forming homologous pairs (when crossing over occurs) and become visible cell rounds up as cytoskeleton breaks down , nucleolus disappears spindle starts to form · , nuclear envelope breaks up , spindle attaches to centromeres and begins to pull on homologous pairs , centromere (w/centrioles) begin to move to either end of the cell 2. Metaphase I Homologous pairs line up along the metaphase plate. 3 Anaphase I Homologous pairs of chromosomes are pulled apart and pulled to opposite ends · cell elongates Each daughter cell receives one chromosome (with two chromatids) from each homologous pair and therefore has half the number of chromosomes (n) as the parent cell (2n) 4. Telophase I chromosomes disperse , nuclear envelope reappears spindle disappears , Narrowing of the cell (cleavage furrow) : Cytokinesis I (plasma membrane pinches cytoplasm in 2) 2 chromosomes in each pair (chromatids aren't identical here because of crossing over Melosis #I begins · Identical to mitosis - (However melosis # produces four cells w/ n chromosomes each that are genetically distinct Prophase I( prophase + prometaphase · metaphase I · anaphase I telophase # - Cytokinesis Gametogenesis the cells produced by meiosis may then mature into gametes and undergoes this process from In cell to gamete spermatogenesis : When male gametes (sperm) are producedIn the testes of animals oogenesis : When female gametes Covaleggs) are produced in the ovaries of animals in spermatogenesis · primary spermatocyte begins during secondary spermatocytes - two a melosis 1 = - Melosis # = 4 spermatids which mature into spermatood > - outermost layer of the germinal epithelium includes the spermatogonia (more through cell cycle some will be pushed Inwards and become large round primary spermatocytes , which begins melosis - smaller secondary spermatocytes produced by melosis I are pushed farther in toward the middle -+ Melosis # = smaller spermaids near the lumen shallow centre) of the seminiferous tubule ~ spermatio migrate to Sertoli (nurse) cells : nourish the spermaids as they mature into very small spermatozoa w/ long tail-like flagella in oogenesis · - In humans : a primary oocyte begins in Melosis I , Cytokinesis produces one secondary oocyte (wI almost all of the cytoplasm) and one polar body (which is discarded - the secondary oocyte undergoes melosis II , Cytokinesis produces one ootid and another polar body. - old then matures into an ovum (egg) - once an ovum is fertilized by a spermatozoan = zygote - before the birth of a girl several thousand , organia have already begun melosis becoming primary oocytes (stop just before metaphase I+ remains paused until the girl matures and the menstrual cycle begins > - one at a time , primary oocytes are allowed to continue melosis - follicle begins development as a primary follide (containing one tiny primary oocyte (it'll protect nourish + + oocyte will increase in size by about 10x as the follicle grows and becomes distended by a fluid-filled cavity. : begins to bulge outward at the surface of the ovary as melosis I is completed = mature follicle containing a secondary oocyte -> At ovulation the follicle ruptures and releases the secondary ocyle from the ovary.The ruptured follicle remains in the ovary changing into corpus luteum , which later may degenerate. > - the secondary oocyte is picked up by the oviduct (fallopian tube) and migrates towards the uterus only if a spermatozoa comes into contact us this oocyte will it Initiate In Melosis #. once melosis. # is complete and ovum fuse to form a zygole which may implant - , the spermatozoan In the living of the uterus and begin development · Animal > - Diploid zygote - goes through meiosis > - cell cycle > - produces gametes Chaploid gametes fuse cell cycle to produce gametes - cell cycle > - gametes fuse together< fertilize Izygote plants · > - zygote goes through cell cycle - goes through another haploid multicellular organism -produce diploid multicellular organism can produce gametes through cell cycle = fertilization ( zygotes - few special cells go through meiosis - cell cycle starts again - produces haploid spores Genetics character or trait : A potentially variable quality or quantity in an organism True - breeding variety When new - generation after reproduced has the same phenotype ~ homozygous for every gene Hybrid offspring : at two different varieties monohybrid cross : Studying the inheritance of a single character in a hybridization experiment p = parental generation · F1 = First Filial generation : offspring ofP generation · F2 : Second Filial generation : offspring of F , generation + gave Mendel insight particles of Inheritance · -color not being inherited the particle Inside , is being Inherited - one particle that's being Inherited (out of the 2) is Dominant Dominant : Determines the color of the flower even when the other type of particle is present punnett square Layout of genetic material > - - How many different ways you can gather genetic information Gene - sequence of genetic material (DNA) - LOCKS the place on a chromosome where : a gene is located - Allele one form of a gene found at a : particular locus genotype : the specific alleles on an organism phenotype : character that an organism has Can observed trait) from Its genotype and environment Homozygous The two alleles at a particular locus are the same (diploid organisms only · : Heterozygous. The two alleles at a particular locus are different Dominant allele that is fully expressed (controls phenotype) Heterozygote · : an in a Recessive : an allele that is not fully expressed In a helevozygote Pleiotropy : The genotype at a single locus influences more than one trait Dihybrid cross A hybridization experiment In which the inheritance of two traits Is studied · : - Independent Assortment the allele Inherited at one locus is : independent of the allele inherited at the other locus - Dependent Assortment : the allele Inherited at one locus In dependent of the allele Inherited at the other locus Polygenic Traits the : phenotype is influenced by many loc (many genes coding for one trait) - ex : Skin color where A ,B , c = dark + a ,b , c = light sexually-reproducing organism haploid carrying one allele for each locus fertilization each in a , alleles are carried by gametes , these gametes are , , through , zygote gets one allele (for each locus) from each gamete and is therefore Diploid. The loci and alleles) are found in chromosomes Biological Sex · - Defined by reproductive capability > Gametes of the same sex can't fuse and grow into mature organism (zygote - - Gametes of different sexes can fuse (fertilize) and growInto a nature organism (zygote - males produce small , motile gametes (sperm) > - females produce large immotile , gametes (eggs) Nondisjunction occurs when too many homologous chromosomes pulled to one side versus the other resultingIn the production of gametes that have an improper · : are chromosome complement - occurs in Melosis I (During Anaphase 1) -Reproducing w/ nondisjunction : some kids may end up w/ no chromosomes or an extra linkage linked genes sit : close together on a chromosome making them likely to be Inherited together - the allele already together on one chromosome will be inherited as a unit crossing over genetic material gets exchanged between palred homologous chromosomes during melosis · : · Non-Mendellan inheritance - Doesn't follow the rule that having a dominant allele the dominant trait will : show + prokaryote we asexual reproduction (parent cell splits = no more parent cell) ~ Plasmids (share w/neighbor - conjugation - Eukaryote w/ asexual reproduction : hydra (multicellular organism) - Haploid eukaryole w/ sexual reproduction - Incomplete Dominance : Dominant allele is not fully expressed When recessive allele is around /Redmixed / While = Pink) Codominance : Alleles work - together (Black mixed with white = Black w/ While spots) Mendelian Dominant allele controls phenotype · : = DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) genetic material of all known cells of nucleotides Polymer structure sugar phosphate backbone w/ nucleic acid : bases - nucleic acid bases: Thymine , Adenine , Cytosine , Guanine The nucleic add bases may form hydrogen bonds with each other · Base pairs : Two nucleic acid bases that are held together by Hydrogen bonds ~ Thymine and Adenine - Cytosine and Guanine DNA : Double stranded w/ complementary strands held together by base pairs DNA replication · ~ As the cell divides , 2 new cells need the same genetic material.: goes through DNA replication - Begins wh the splitting of the 2 DNA strands How genes in the DNA are expressed /DNA expression · -gene section of DNA used to code for certain types of protein : DNA polymerase -DNA has to get outside the nucleus In order to be expressed bind to template DNA strand - can Influence the phenotype In some way bring in nucleotide - Directs the DNA toward the protein to influence a trait attack to growing DNA strand ~ Directs ATAC to Insulin , GCCT to an enzyme to Chlorophyl... etc... bring in another complementary nucleotide - through RNA (RIDoNucleic Acid) RNA made of ribose sugar single stranded only contains uracil (not , , thymine) : U pairs W A 1. MRNA : Messenger RNA carries protein blueprint from DNA to ribosomes - a 2 tRNA : transfer RNA. + carries amino acids to ribosomes - folds on itself + one end: 3 basis are exposed (Anticodon triplet : of bases) + Other end : point where amino acids are attached : Amino Acid Attachment center - each has a specific anticodon + carries a specific amino acid [GCC is specific to Arg , CCC is specific to Gly. URNA 3 : Ribosomal RNA -makes up the ribosomes(along wh some proteins) - Function messenger for DNA : to leave the nucleus to be translated as a protein Prokaryotic Cells (RNA tO DNA) > - Transcription : copy a sequence of DNA Onto RNA (MRNA , ARNA , URNA : all transcription) - Translation from sequence In RNA : to determine sequence in the amino acid then moving to protein Eukaryotic · cells Mitochondria · In the nucleus (transcription MRNA modified before it leaves the nucleus (RNA processing translation Transcription (process by which DNA gets converted Into MRNA) 1. Initiation : RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA > - Promoter region A short : sequence of DNA RNA causes I strands to separate polymerase C. Elongation : Begins to add nucleotides to the growing MINA strand (works on transcription unit RNA polymerase synthesizes MRNA starting from send to the 3'end RNA polymerase reads DNA strand from 31 to 5 · Template strand used : to Synthesize MRNA (Where RNA polymerase is active on DNA RNA original strand not used : (sequences match up w/RNA-except thymine + uracil). 3 Elongation : RNA polymerase , MRNA strand separate from the DNA template strand (at terminator sequence Poly-A polymerase enzyme caps the 3' end of the MRNA Strand Poly A tail (At the beginning of transcription 5' is also capped · = cap + tail used to protect the mRNA strand from being degraded by certain enzymes - : End of transcription DNA has been used to create : a pre-mRNA strand > - pre-mRNA : contains introns and exons DNA replication Transcription ready to Divide (S period) cells Are Dividing constantly copies all DNA only affects certain genes Involves both strands one strand is involved only DNA polymerase RNA polymerase copying sequences DNA DNA , copying sequences DNA - Translation · (EUKaryotes Process of - converting information in MRNA and using it to build protein - Ribosome : site where proteins are manufactured in the cell - Once MRNA Strand Is synthesized in the nucleus , It leaves the nucleus and enters the cytosol where it interacts with a free ribosome (or one that's attached to rough ER) Within the ribosome , It'll react w/ - a tRNA - Each set of 3 nucleotides on a MRNA molecule = a codon which matches up w/ another 3 nucleotides on the tRNA molecule-anticodon Each codon matches up wa specific amino acid 1. Initiation : Ribosome composed of a large small subunit has 3 active sites : al E site b) P site 2) A site start codon AUG : - corresponds to anticodon UAC (in the small subunit) the VAC +RNA Molecule has a specific amino acid attached to it. The particular tRNA molecule enters the ribosome at the R-site (where peptide bonds are formed 2. Elongation : Another tRNA molecule enters the A-site , during this process a covalent bond will form between 2 amino acids (from the P-site in Initiation step and A-site in this step
