Ancient Religions PDF

Never choose question B usually unlikely D: Chapter 1: Living with the Divine ​ Core Integration: Religion and culture were inseparable in ancient life. ​ Ethnic Identity: Religious beliefs shaped self-identity, family, city, and empire. ​ Anachronism: Modern terms like cult or pag...

Never choose question B usually unlikely D: Chapter 1: Living with the Divine ​ Core Integration: Religion and culture were inseparable in ancient life. ​ Ethnic Identity: Religious beliefs shaped self-identity, family, city, and empire. ​ Anachronism: Modern terms like cult or pagan can mislead interpretations of ancient beliefs. ​ Polytheism: Having multiple gods did not cause conflict; instead, deities had specialized roles. ​ Religious Studies Approach: Focuses on historical and social contexts rather than faith-based analysis. Chapter 2: The Ancient Civilizations of the Mediterranean Basin ​ Cultural Exchange: Greek and Roman religion absorbed influences from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Phoenicia. ​ Minoan Civilization (Crete): ○​ Fertility goddess cult, bull-leaping rituals. ​ Mesopotamian Influence: ○​ Enuma Elish and The Epic of Gilgamesh shaped creation myths. ○​ Flood myth parallels Noah’s Ark. ​ Egyptian Influence: ○​ Morality and justice linked to the afterlife. ○​ Hieroglyphs, tombs, and funerary objects provide insight. ​ Phoenicians: ○​ Traded widely, spread the phonetic alphabet, and incorporated Mesopotamian religious ideas. ​ Greek Civilization Periods: ○​ Minoan → Mycenaean → Dark Ages → Archaic → Classical → Hellenistic. ​ Archaic Age (Greece): ○​ Development of the polis (city-state), Greek colonization expanded. ​ Roman Religion: ○​ Influenced by the Etruscans. ○​ Pomerium: The sacred boundary of Rome. Chapter 5: Temples and Priests Temples as Sacred Space ​ Worshippers gathered outside at altars, not inside temples. ​ Temenos Wall: Marked sacred temple grounds. ​ Greek Temple Styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns.  ​ Roman Temples: Inspired by Etruscan and Greek models. Priests and Priestesses ​ Required to maintain purity (mental & physical). ​ Ablutions (ritual washings) before ceremonies. ​ Priests' Duties: Maintained sacred days, temple upkeep, and cared for god statues. Religious Officials in Rome ​ Pontifices: Combined religion and politics, oversaw law and public festivals. ​ Flamens (appointed by King Numa): ○​ High-ranking priests (15 major, 12 minor). ○​ Flamen Dialis: Jupiter’s priest, wore distinct ceremonial clothing. ​ Vestal Virgins: ○​ Kept the sacred flame of Vesta burning. ○​ Severe punishments for breaking vows of chastity. ○​ Guarded sacred objects, including the Palladium from Troy. Sacrificial Rituals ​ Procession through the city before public sacrifices. ​ Steps in Sacrifice: ○​ Prayers and epithets must be exact, or the ritual restarted. ○​ A flute player masked outside noise. ○​ Haruspices read entrails to determine the god’s acceptance. ​ Divination Experts: ○​ College of Augurs: Interpreted omens. ○​ Duoviri Sacris Faciundis: Maintained the Sibylline Oracles. Chapter 6: Worship of the Gods & Community Religious Festivals Festivals and Cosmic Order ​ Festivals maintained balance, marked seasons, and honored mythic events. ​ Included processions with musicians, dancers, and hymns (carmina). Sacrificial Offerings ​ Animals were decorated and sometimes drugged to ensure a willing sacrifice. ​ Offerings were specific to each deity (e.g., black animals for chthonic gods). Pilgrimages ​ Delphi (Apollo’s oracle). ​ Asclepions (healing sanctuaries dedicated to Asclepius). Key Deities and Festivals ​ Tyche (Greece): Goddess of fate and fortune. ​ The Fates (Moirai, Greece): Controlled destiny. ​ Ceres (Rome): ○​ Cerealia (April): Celebrated agricultural fertility. ○​ Ambarvalia (May): Included sacrifices for protection. ○​ Roman Senate decrees were stored in her temple. Roman Triumphs ​ A general was granted a triumph if he expanded Rome’s borders. ​ He wore a purple toga picta and laurel wreath. ​ The parade route: Began at Campus Martius, ended at Capitoline Hill. Entertainment & Drama ​ Pantomime: Non-verbal performances conveying myths. ​ Comedy & Theatre: Often political or erotic in nature. MLS: Chapter 1: The Nature of Myth ​ Definition of Myth: Traditional stories with social, religious, or moral significance. ​ Types of Myth: ○​ Divine Myth: Focuses on gods and the cosmos. ○​ Legend (Saga): Focuses on historical figures and places. ○​ Folktale: Entertaining stories with supernatural elements. ​ Importance of Myth: Reflects societal values, explains natural phenomena, and connects humans with the divine. Chapter 2: The Cultural Context of Classical Myth ​ Theories of Myth Interpretation: ○​ Euhemerism: Myths are exaggerated historical events. ○​ Structuralism (Levi-Strauss): Myths resolve binary opposites. ○​ Jungian Archetypes: Universal symbols appearing across myths. ​ Influence of Near Eastern Myths: ○​ Mesopotamian Myths: Creation myths like the Enuma Elish influenced Greek cosmogony. ○​ Egyptian Myths: Ideas of the afterlife influenced Greek conceptions of the underworld. Chapter 3: The Olympian Gods ​ Zeus: King of the gods, enforces order, wields the thunderbolt. ​ Hera: Goddess of marriage, known for her jealousy. ​ Poseidon: God of the sea, earthquakes, and horses. ​ Demeter: Goddess of agriculture, central to the Eleusinian Mysteries. ​ Athena: Goddess of wisdom and war strategy, associated with the Parthenon. ​ Apollo: God of prophecy, healing, music; connected to the Oracle of Delphi. ​ Artemis: Goddess of the hunt, protector of young women. ​ Aphrodite: Goddess of love and beauty, associated with the Trojan War. ​ Hermes: Messenger of the gods, guide of souls to the Underworld. ​ Ares: God of war, represents violence and chaos. ​ Hephaestus: God of craftsmanship, associated with volcanoes and metalwork. ​ Dionysus: God of wine, ecstasy, and theater. Chapter 4: The Creation of the World and Humans ​ Hesiod’s Theogony: ○​ Chaos: The primordial void. ○​ Gaia (Earth): Mother of the Titans, Giants, and the world. ○​ Uranus (Sky): Overthrown by Cronus. ○​ Cronus and the Titans: Overthrown by Zeus in the Titanomachy. ○​ Prometheus: Creator of humans, punished for giving fire to mankind. ​ Ages of Humanity (Hesiod’s Works and Days): ○​ Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic, and Iron Ages. Chapter 5: The Underworld and Afterlife ​ Hades: Ruler of the Underworld. ​ Persephone: Kidnapped by Hades, her story explains the seasons. ​ The Rivers of the Underworld: Styx (oaths), Lethe (forgetfulness), Acheron (sorrow). ​ Punished Figures: ○​ Tantalus: Eternal hunger and thirst. ○​ Sisyphus: Rolling a boulder uphill forever. ○​ Ixion: Bound to a fiery wheel. ​ Heroes Visiting the Underworld: Odysseus, Aeneas, and Orpheus. Chapter 6: Heroes and the Heroic Cycle ​ Common Traits of Heroes: ○​ Divine parentage or favor. ○​ A quest or struggle. ○​ Suffering or exile. ○​ Apotheosis (becoming divine).  ​ Examples: ○​ Heracles: 12 Labors, achieved immortality. ○​ Perseus: Slayed Medusa, saved Andromeda. ○​ Theseus: Defeated the Minotaur, founded Athens. Chapter 7: The Trojan War ​ Key Causes: ○​ The Judgment of Paris: Paris chose Aphrodite, who promised him Helen. ○​ Helen’s abduction by Paris. ​ Greek Heroes: ○​ Achilles: Greatest warrior, killed Hector. ○​ Agamemnon: Leader of the Greek army. ○​ Odysseus: Clever strategist, devised the Trojan Horse. ​ Trojan Heroes: ○​ Hector: Prince of Troy, slain by Achilles. ○​ Aeneas: Survivor who would later found Rome. ​ Outcome: Greeks win via the Trojan Horse; Troy is destroyed. Chapter 8: The Odyssey ​ Odysseus' Journey: ○​ Encounters Polyphemus, Circe, Calypso, the Sirens. ○​ Visits the Underworld to consult Tiresias. ○​ Returns to Ithaca, defeats the suitors of Penelope. Chapter 9: Jason and the Argonauts ​ Jason’s Quest: Retrieve the Golden Fleece. ​ Key Figures: ○​ Medea: Helped Jason, later killed their children in revenge. ○​ Pelias: Usurper king, sent Jason on the quest. ​ Themes: Betrayal, divine intervention, tragic consequences. Chapter 10: Theban Saga ​ Cadmus: Founder of Thebes, introduced the alphabet. ​ Oedipus: ○​ Killed his father, married his mother (unaware). ○​ Solved the Sphinx’s riddle. ○​ Blinded himself after the truth was revealed. ​ Antigone: Defied Creon to bury her brother, symbol of divine law vs. human law. Chapter 11: Orpheus and the Power of Music  ​ Orpheus: Musician who tried to retrieve Eurydice from the Underworld. ​ Dionysian vs. Apollonian Themes: ○​ Dionysian: Chaos, emotion, ecstasy. ○​ Apollonian: Order, reason, civilization. ​ Mystery Cults: Eleusinian Mysteries (Demeter), Orphism (Orpheus). Chapter 12: The Foundation of Rome ​ Aeneas: Trojan hero, forefather of Rome. ​ Romulus and Remus: ○​ Raised by a she-wolf. ○​ Romulus founded Rome after killing Remus. ​ Themes: Destiny, divine favor, civilization vs. barbarism. Greek and Roman Religions (Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6) Summary Chapter 1: Living with the Divine ​ Religion was integrated into all aspects of daily life. ​ No separation between sacred and secular; worship was civic duty. ​ Rituals included sacrifices, prayers, and omens to seek divine favor. ​ Polytheism was common, with gods associated with natural forces and societal roles. ​ Gods and Mortals: Gods did not die, but certain mortals achieved semi-divine status (e.g., Heracles, Asclepius). ​ Purity and Pollution: Gods avoided direct encounters with human death, emphasizing ritual purification. Chapter 2: Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations ​ Greek and Roman religions were influenced by Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Near Eastern cultures. ​ Religious syncretism: Greek gods were identified with foreign deities (e.g., Zeus-Ammon in Egypt). ​ Early Mediterranean societies relied on divination and priestly classes for interpreting divine will. ​ Priesthood and Temples: ○​ Temples were sacred spaces, often restricted to priests. ○​ Priests performed sacrifices but did not act as intermediaries in theological matters. ○​ Examples: Egyptian temples housed living gods (e.g., Pharaoh as divine), whereas Greek and Roman temples housed statues of gods. Chapter 5: Temples and Priests ​ Temples were centers of worship, not congregational spaces.  ​ Greek priesthoods were often hereditary and specific to city-states. ​ Roman religious offices (Pontifex Maximus, Augurs, Vestal Virgins) were state-controlled and politically influential. ​ Key Temples: ○​ Parthenon (Athens): Dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. ○​ Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Rome): Central to Roman state religion. ○​ Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi: Site of the Oracle, where priests (Pythia) delivered prophecies. ​ Priestly Duties: ○​ Maintained rituals and sacrifices. ○​ Conducted auspices (interpreting omens through bird flight patterns, entrails, etc.). ○​ Ensured divine favor for military and political decisions. Chapter 6: Worship of the Gods and Festivals ​ Festivals were major public events that reinforced community and civic identity. ​ Greek Festivals: ○​ Panathenaea: Celebrated Athena, included a grand procession and athletic games. ○​ Dionysia: Honored Dionysus, central to the development of theater, featuring dramatic performances. ○​ Eleusinian Mysteries: Secret religious rites promising personal salvation, associated with Demeter and Persephone. ​ Roman Festivals: ○​ Saturnalia: Festival of role-reversal, feasting, and merrymaking, honoring Saturn. ○​ Lupercalia: Fertility festival associated with Romulus and Remus, involving ritual sacrifices and celebratory runs. ○​ Vestalia: Honored Vesta, celebrated by women, ensuring the sacred fire remained burning in the Temple of Vesta. ​ Sacrificial Practices: ○​ The most fundamental religious act; involved offering an animal to the gods. ○​ Specific animals were associated with certain gods (e.g., bulls for Zeus, pigs for Demeter, dogs for Hecate). ○​ Blood sacrifices required proper execution, ensuring divine favor and avoiding bad omens. ​ Divination and Omens: ○​ Priests (augurs) read natural signs, such as animal behavior, celestial movements, and lightning strikes. ○​ Haruspicy (examining entrails) was commonly practiced in Rome. ​ Private Worship: ○​ Household gods (Lares and Penates) were worshipped at domestic altars. ○​ Daily offerings and prayers ensured familial prosperity and divine protection. Key Takeaways ​ Greek and Roman religions emphasized reciprocity: Humans honored the gods through rituals, and in return, they sought divine protection and favor. ​ Temples were sacred, not community centers: Worship occurred outside the temple; only priests had access to the inner sanctums. ​ Festivals reinforced civic and religious unity: Public rituals were key in fostering social cohesion and reinforcing political structures. ​ Divination and omens shaped decision-making: Both Greeks and Romans relied heavily on interpreting signs before engaging in major actions. ​ Sacrifices ensured balance with the divine: Religious acts were transactional, with strict rules governing how gods were appeased. Other: Rules of Myth and Religion: ​ Religious practices are typically very conservative. ​ Gods: ○​ All human beings are destined to die except for Heracles; no gods will ever die. ○​ In rare cases, immortality can be shared, reassigned, or taken on as charity. ○​ Gods refuse to pollute themselves by watching humans die. ○​ Greeks frequently speak of gods in privative terms, describing what they are not, or what they lack, rather than what they are or have. ○​ There are twelve Olympian gods, and that number is more important than the identity of the individuals who make up the list. ○​ The number of male and female gods is almost equal. ○​ Gods are of the same race as men, so their physical form is humanoid. ○​ Gods have minds like humans, including all the moral defects humans have; they lie, cheat, steal, and commit adultery. ○​ All gods in Greco-Roman mythology are physically perfect except for Hephaestus, and they are very large. ○​ Gods are jealous. ○​ Gods are ageless and immune to the effects of time, and their age does not depend on when they were born. ○​ Gods manage to work out time-share agreements, while men do not. ○​ Gods mature extremely quickly. ○​ A god can never break an oath sworn on the River Styx. ○​ The gods’ matings are never without issue. ○​ A god never loses a limb or bleeds, or ejaculates onto the ground without life springing up from the spot.  ○​ Gods don’t eat meat; they have their own special food, ambrosia and drink, nectar. ○​ Gods often marry their siblings, because there aren’t many available singles. ○​ The gifts of the gods are always fatal. ​ Heroes: ○​ A hero is a dead person who either did or suffered something extraordinary in life. ○​ Demigods are a kind of human being, albeit an above-average kind. ○​ Heroes mature extremely quickly. ​ Hybrids: ○​ In human-animal hybrids, the human part is on top, the animal below. The one exception is the Minotaur. ○​ The centaurs share many stories with Heracles. ​ People: ○​ People alone, unlike animals, can live in communities because of two distinctive traits: modesty and justice. ○​ Justice for Greeks meant giving to each person what is owed to him or her. You owe your friends help and your enemies harm. ○​ The cure for a disease is the thing that caused it (homeopathy). ○​ In Greek thinking, the effect of an action is of more interest than its cause. ○​ The most important family-relationship in ancient Greece was that between siblings. ○​ There was a marked tendency in European (pre)history for culture to move ever westward. ○​ The head, which ends in the chin, and the thigh, which ends in the knee, are the main sexual organs in males; suppliants grasp the chin and knee. ○​ Kings who send heroes on missions hope they will die attempting them, but the heroes always succeed. ○​ It’s easier to enter the underworld than to leave. ○​ In myth, children exposed or set adrift at sea are always rescued, and ultimately go on to perform some great deed. ○​ Whenever there’s a caveat in a myth, it will somehow prevent the story from having a happy ending. ○​ The essential religious act in the ancient world was sacrificing an animal to a god. All one needs to do this besides the animal is an altar. ○​ In the Greco-Roman world, temples were off-limits to worshippers. The one exception was Eleusis’ Telesterion. ○​ Whoever draws first blood in a war guarantees the ultimate defeat of his own side. ○​ There’s no wriggling out either of one’s mortality or more generally one’s fate, and attempts to evade an oracle actually contribute to its fulfillment. ○​ Sinners are normally punished in the underworld by some form of frustration. ○​ Characters in myth often have names with ill-omened meanings, which are understood only at the end of their stories.  ○​ Men intending to kill themselves usually stab themselves in the chest, while women usually hang themselves except for Deianira, who stabs herself. ○​ Descendants of Helios, the Sun, are always destructive. MLS timeline: Primordial Beginnings: ​ Chaos: The initial state of existence. ​ Ge (Gaia) and Uranus (Heaven): Emerge, representing Earth and Sky. They produce the Titans, Cyclopes and other monstrous offspring. ​ Cronus castrates Uranus: Cronus, one of the Titans, at the behest of his mother Ge, castrates his father Uranus with a sickle. From Uranus's blood, the Erinyes, Giants, and Meliae are born. ​ Birth of Aphrodite: From Uranus's genitals thrown into the sea, Aphrodite is born. Rise of the Olympians: ​ Titans: The children of Ge and Uranus include Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Theia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys and Cronus. ​ Cronus and Rhea: Cronus marries his sister Rhea. ​ Zeus' Birth and Rise to Power: Zeus is born to Rhea, who hides him from Cronus, who swallows his other children. Zeus eventually overthrows Cronus and the Titans. Creation of Mortals: ​ Prometheus and Fire: Prometheus steals fire from Zeus and gives it to humanity. ​ Pandora: As punishment, Zeus orders Hephaestus to create Pandora, the first woman, who is given a jar (often mistranslated as a box) filled with evils. ​ Deucalion and Pyrrha: A great flood occurs. Deucalion and Pyrrha, son of Prometheus and daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora respectively, survive and repopulate the earth by casting stones behind them, which become humans. ​ Lycaon: Zeus visits Lycaon, who tests him by serving human flesh. Zeus is angered and turns Lycaon into a wolf. ​ Zeus and Mortals: Zeus engages in numerous affairs with mortal women and goddesses. Events Involving Specific Deities: ​ Poseidon: God of the sea, involved in floods and earthquakes. ​ Apollo: Born on Delos to Leto. Establishes his oracle at Delphi. Has musical contests with Pan. Pursues Daphne, who turns into a laurel tree to escape him. ​ Artemis: Goddess of the hunt, associated with virginity and childbirth. The story of Actaeon, who sees Artemis bathing and is turned into a stag by Artemis. Euripides' play Hippolytus which highlights Artemis's role in vengeance. ​ Aphrodite: Goddess of love and beauty. Has a relationship with Anchises. The myth of Pygmalion, who falls in love with a statue he creates. ​ Ares: God of war. Linked to Aphrodite. ​ Hermes: Born to Zeus and Maia. Invents the lyre and steals Apollo's cattle. Reconciles with Apollo and becomes the messenger of the gods. Other Key Myths and Stories:  ​ Ganymede: Abducted by Zeus to be his cupbearer on Olympus. ​ Acis and Galatea: The love story of Acis and Galatea, and the jealousy of the Cyclops Polyphemus. ​ Psyche and Cupid: Psyche, a beautiful mortal woman, is loved by Cupid (Eros) after his mother, Aphrodite, is angered by her. Historical and Cultural References: ​ Mycenaean Period: Mentions Linear B tablets and the worship of deities like Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hermes, Athena, Artemis, Dionysus. ​ Homer and Hesiod: References to their works, particularly Hesiod's Theogony. Cast of Characters (Based on the Provided Excerpts) Major Deities: ​ Zeus (Jove, Jupiter): King of the gods, ruler of the sky, upholder of justice, protector of hospitality and oaths, known for his many affairs. ​ Hera (Juno): Queen of the gods, wife and sister of Zeus, goddess of marriage and women. ​ Poseidon (Neptune): God of the sea, earthquakes, and horses. Brother of Zeus. ​ Apollo (Phoebus): God of music, poetry, light, healing, and prophecy. Son of Zeus and Leto. Associated with Delphi and Delos. ​ Artemis (Diana): Goddess of the hunt, wilderness, wild animals, the Moon, and childbirth. Daughter of Zeus and Leto. ​ Aphrodite (Venus, Cytherea): Goddess of love, beauty, and marriage. Born from the sea foam created when Uranus's genitals were thrown into the sea. ​ Ares (Mars): God of war, son of Zeus and Hera. ​ Hermes (Mercury): Messenger of the gods, god of commerce, thieves, travelers, and sports. Son of Zeus and Maia. ​ Hephaestus: God of metalworking and fire. ​ Eros (Cupid): God of love and desire. Sometimes considered the son of Aphrodite. Primordial Deities/Figures: ​ Chaos: The primordial void from which all things originated. ​ Ge (Gaia): Earth goddess, mother of the Titans, Cyclopes, and other beings. ​ Uranus: Sky god, father of the Titans. Castrated by his son Cronus. ​ Cronus: Titan, father of Zeus, swallowed his children, overthrown by Zeus. ​ Rhea: Titaness, wife of Cronus, mother of Zeus, hid Zeus from Cronus. Titans and Their Descendants: ​ Oceanus and Tethys: Titans, parents of the Oceanids. ​ Hyperion and Theia: Titans, parents of Helius (Sun), Selene (Moon), and Eos (Dawn). Other Deities and Mythological Figures: ​ Leto: Mother of Apollo and Artemis. ​ Maia: Mother of Hermes. ​ Pan: God of the wild, shepherds, flocks, rustic music and impromptus, and companion of the nymphs. ​ Nereus: Old man of the sea, father of the Nereids. ​ Doris: Oceanid, wife of Nereus, mother of the Nereids.  ​ Thetis: Nereid, one of the three mermaids singled out. ​ Galatea: Nereid, loved by Acis, pursued by Polyphemus. ​ Amphitrite: Nereid. ​ Hestia: Goddess of the hearth and home. ​ Cyclopes: One-eyed giants, children of Ge and Uranus. ​ Erinyes (Furies): Goddesses of vengeance, born from the blood of Uranus. ​ Nymphs: Female spirits of nature, associated with rivers, trees, and mountains. ​ Naiads: Nymphs of springs and fountains. ​ Dryads/Hamadryads: Nymphs of trees, especially oak trees. ​ Meliae: Nymphs of ash trees. ​ Nike (Victory): Associated as the child of Ares. Mortals: ​ Actaeon: Hunter, saw Artemis bathing and was turned into a stag. ​ Hippolytus: Son of Theseus, devotee of Artemis, falsely accused by Phaedra. ​ Phaedra: Wife of Theseus, falls in love with Hippolytus. ​ Theseus: King of Athens, father of Hippolytus, husband of Phaedra. ​ Anchises: Mortal, loved by Aphrodite, father of Aeneas. ​ Ganymede: Handsome youth, abducted by Zeus to be his cupbearer. ​ Lycaon: King who tested Zeus by serving human flesh. ​ Deucalion: Son of Prometheus, survived the flood with Pyrrha. ​ Pyrrha: Daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, survived the flood with Deucalion. ​ Acis: Loved by Galatea, killed by Polyphemus, turned into a river god. ​ Pygmalion: Sculptor, fell in love with his ivory statue. ​ Daphne: Nymph pursued by Apollo, turned into a laurel tree. ​ Midas: King of Phrygia, judged the musical contest between Apollo and Pan, given ass's ears. ​ Deliades: Maidens who serve Apollo on Delos. Historical/Literary Figures Mentioned: ​ Homer: Poet of the Iliad and Odyssey. Stabilized Olympian myths and influenced Greek and Roman writers. Poems took final form in the 8th century BC. The Iliad predates the Odyssey. The written text was likely stabilized in Athens under Pisistratus in the 6th century BC. Preserves historical details from the Trojan War era. ​ Hesiod: Religious tales contrast with Ovid’s. Creates a universe of gods, demigods, abstractions, animals, monsters, and mortals. ​ Ovid: Major source for classical mythology after Homer. Metamorphoses (A.D. 8) influenced literature and art, containing 200+ legends from Creation to Ovid’s time. Stories like Echo and Narcissus, Apollo and Daphne, and Pyramus and Thisbe originate from Ovid. Fasti details Roman religious myths. ​ Euripides: Established authoritative versions of many myths and sagas. Died in 406 B.C.  ​ Plato: Used myth for philosophical teaching. Developed “philosophical myth” as a literary form. The myth of Er explores the soul’s afterlife and beliefs about the Underworld. ​ William Blake: Known for relief etching with hand coloring (1794). ​ Herodotus: Historian (born ca. 485 B.C.), recorded traditional tales. Some contain universal truths. His account of Solon and Croesus illustrates Greek views on gods and fate. ​ Emmett L. Bennett Jr.: Founding father of Mycenaean script studies. ​ Carl Blegen: Excavated Pylos, unearthing hundreds of Linear B tablets. ​ Ventris: Deciphered Linear B tablets. ​ Lévi-Strauss: Key figure in mythology interpretation and comparative analysis. ​ Jack Miles: Author of God: A Biography. ​ Timeline Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6: 🟢 EARLY RELIGIOUS FOUNDATIONS (3000 BCE – 800 BCE) 🔹 Religious Ideas Formed → Later Greek & Roman Beliefs ​ Mesopotamian & Egyptian Polytheism (c. 3000 BCE – 1000 BCE) → Introduced divine kingship, sacrifice, and temples (influences on Roman emperor worship). ​ Minoan & Mycenaean Civilizations (c. 2000–1100 BCE) → Worshipped earth goddesses & sky gods, influencing later Greek pantheon. ​ Greek "Dark Ages" (c. 1100–800 BCE) → Oral traditions preserved myths about Zeus, Apollo, Athena, and the Underworld (Hades). 🔹 Key Figures: ​ Homer (c. 8th century BCE): Iliad & Odyssey shaped beliefs about Olympian gods & afterlife. ​ Hesiod (c. 700 BCE): Theogony detailed genealogy of gods, divine justice, and cosmic order. 🔗 Connection: Early Greek myths established divine hierarchy, later reflected in temples (Ch. 5) and festivals (Ch. 6). 🟠 FORMATION OF CLASSICAL GREEK RELIGION (800–323 BCE) 🔹 City-State (Polis) Religion Develops → Tied to Social & Political Life ​ Olympic Games Founded (776 BCE) → Honored Zeus, reinforcing religion as a unifying force.  ​ Delphi Oracle Gained Political Power (700s BCE – 300s BCE) → City-states consulted Apollo’s Pythia before wars & political decisions. ​ Athenian Religion & Festivals (500s BCE – 400s BCE) ○​ Dionysia Festival (6th century BCE): Worship of Dionysus evolved into tragedy & comedy competitions. ○​ Temple of Athena Parthenos Built (447 BCE): Reinforced Athenian identity & political power. 🔹 Key Figures: ​ Pythia (Oracle of Delphi, c. 700s–300s BCE): Priestess of Apollo, giving prophecies that guided politics. ​ Peisistratos (Tyrant of Athens, c. 546–527 BCE): Expanded Panathenaic Festival, using religion to justify his rule. ​ Socrates (469–399 BCE): Executed for "impiety", showing religion’s role in enforcing social order. ​ Plato (c. 427–347 BCE): Criticized myths but embraced divine order, influencing Roman Stoicism (Ch. 5). 🔗 Connection: Greek religion was localized, with city-states controlling their own deities & priesthoods—different from Rome’s centralized state religion (Ch. 5). 🔴 HELLENISTIC RELIGIOUS TRANSFORMATIONS (323–31 BCE) 🔹 Alexander’s Empire → Spread of Greek Religious Ideas ​ Hellenistic Expansion (323–31 BCE): Greek gods merged with Egyptian, Persian, & Eastern deities (e.g., Zeus-Ammon). ​ Rise of Mystery Cults (300s–100s BCE): Private religious groups (e.g., Eleusinian Mysteries) focused on personal salvation. 🔹 Key Figures: ​ Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE): Declared himself son of Zeus-Ammon, merging Greek & Egyptian religious ideas. ​ Euhemerus (c. 300 BCE): Theorized that gods were once real leaders, influencing Roman emperor worship (Ch. 6). 🔗 Connection: Greek religion became more personal & mystical, setting the stage for Roman adaptations of foreign cults (e.g., Isis & Mithras, Ch. 6). 🟡 EARLY ROMAN RELIGION (753–31 BCE) 🔹 Rome Adopts & Modifies Greek & Italian Religious Practices  ​ Foundation of Rome (753 BCE, Myth of Romulus & Remus): Romulus founded Rome under Mars' favor. ​ Roman Republic & State Religion (509 BCE – 31 BCE) ○​ Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (509 BCE): Became Rome’s religious center. ○​ Pontifex Maximus (2nd century BCE): Chief priest controlled religious calendar & sacrifices. ​ Evocatio Rituals (300s BCE – 100s BCE): Romans "invited" enemy gods to join Rome (absorbing Apollo, Venus, Hercules). 🔹 Key Figures: ​ Romulus (Legendary Founder, 753 BCE): Myth connected to Mars, reinforcing divine war power. ​ Numa Pompilius (2nd King of Rome, c. 700 BCE): Established Roman religious institutions (Pontifex Maximus, Vestal Virgins). ​ Cicero (106–43 BCE): Defended traditional Roman religion against foreign cults. 🔗 Connection: Rome centralized religious control, different from Greek localized temple systems (Ch. 5). 🟣 ROMAN IMPERIAL RELIGION & FESTIVALS (31 BCE – 400 CE) 🔹 Emperors Use Religion to Strengthen Power ​ Augustus Establishes the Imperial Cult (27 BCE – 14 CE): ○​ Deified Julius Caesar & himself, reinforcing emperor’s divine authority. ​ Major Roman Festivals (1st – 4th Century CE): ○​ Saturnalia (December 17–23): Feasting, gift-giving, role reversals (precursor to Christmas). ○​ Lupercalia (February 15): Linked to Romulus & fertility rites. ○​ Parentalia (February 13–21): Honored ancestors & the dead. 🔹 Key Figures: ​ Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE): Created emperor worship system, blending religion & politics (Ch. 5). 🔗 Connection: Rome transformed Greek religious ideas into a state-controlled system, using festivals & emperor worship to unify the empire. 🛑 DECLINE OF POLYTHEISTIC RELIGION (200–400 CE) → RISE OF CHRISTIANITY 🔹 Roman Religious Decline & New Challenges  ​ Mystery Cults Grow (2nd–3rd Century CE): Cults of Mithras & Isis focused on personal salvation. ​ Constantine & the Edict of Milan (313 CE): Legalized Christianity, reducing the power of traditional temples. ​ Theodosian Decrees (391 CE): Banned pagan temples & sacrifices. 🔗 Connection: Christianity absorbed Greco-Roman rituals (feast days, saints, and martyr cults). Class 1: Myth and Its Definitions ​ Definition of Myth: ○​ No single definition ○​ Greek word mythos ○​ Myths are too broad to define ​ Four Categories of Myth: ○​ Divine/True Myths: ​ Focus on gods and human relations ​ Aetiological function: explains why things are the way they are ○​ Sagas or Legends: ​ Similar to divine myths, but with perceptible historical relationships ○​ Folktales: ​ Adventures with fantastic beings, heroes, happy endings, and entertainment ○​ Fairytales: ​ Traditional stories with moral lessons and magical content ​ Myth and Truth: ○​ Myths appear fictional or false, unlike science or facts ○​ Myths aim to represent higher human experiences, independent of factual accuracy ​ Myth and Religion: ○​ Myth and religion are intertwined ○​ Greek and Roman religions validated by myths ○​ Mircea Eliade: Myths give orientation, satisfying a spiritual yearning by narrating origins ​ Etiology, Rationalism, Allegory in Myth: ○​ Etiological Myths: Explain origins of facts or customs ○​ Euhemerus (Rationalizing): Claims gods were humans, rationalizing myths (e.g., Zeus as a Cretan prince) ○​ Allegorical Approach: Sees myths as metaphors for nature (Max Muller) ​ Myth and Psychology: ○​ Sigmund Freud:  ​ Dreams fulfill repressed wishes (condensation, displacement, representation) ​ Myths and dreams similar in symbols (e.g., Oedipus complex) ○​ Carl Jung: ​ Myths as projections of the collective unconscious ​ Contain archetypes: anima (female), animus (male) ​ Myth and Society: ○​ Myth and Ritual: ​ J.G. Frazer: Links myth with ritual ​ Jane Harrison: Myth fundamentals influencing classical attitudes ​ Robert Graves: True myth is shorthand for ritual mime ○​ Myth as Social Charters: ​ Malinowski: Myths as practical guides for social customs ​ Structuralist Interpretations of Myth: ○​ Claude Lévi-Strauss: Myths as a mode of communication to resolve conflicts between ideas ○​ Vladimir Propp: Russian folktales as quest narratives, broken into motifemes ○​ Walter Burkert: Combines structuralism with classical scholarship Class 2: Greek Myths and Their Origin ​ Greek Identity: ○​ Greece was composed of city-states with shared language and religious beliefs ​ The Singers of Mythoi: ○​ Myths composed and performed orally ○​ Use of formulae and epithets for reproducibility ○​ Spread Greek culture and mythological stories ​ Hesiod's Theogony (750-650 BCE): ○​ Describes the creation of gods and Zeus's rise to power ○​ Aetiological myth, not a sacred text ○​ Hesiod's encounter with Muses while shepherding, receiving divine truth ​ First Generation of Gods: ○​ Chaos: A raw, formless mass ○​ Gaia (Earth), Tartarus, Eros, Erebos, Night: Key primordial beings ○​ Gaia and Uranus: Union of Earth and Sky ○​ Children of Gaia and Uranus: Cyclopes, Hekatonchires, and 12 Titans (including Cronus) ​ Castration of Uranus: ○​ Cronus uses a sickle to castrate Uranus ○​ From Uranus's blood, Aphrodite is born ​ Cronus and Rhea: ○​ Cronus swallows his children to prevent his downfall ○​ Rhea saves Zeus by giving Cronus a stone to swallow ○​ Zeus raised secretly on Mount Dicte by nymphs and goats  ​ Metamorphoses by Ovid: ○​ Creation myth, with themes of transformation and divine intervention Class 3: The Titanomachy ​ The Titanomachy: 1.​ Battle between Zeus and his siblings (Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon) vs. Cronus and the Titans 2.​ Zeus and siblings win, aided by the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers 3.​ Titans imprisoned in Tartarus ​ The Titans in Tartarus: 1.​ Atlas forced to carry the sky 2.​ Typhoeus: Monster god born from Gaia and Tartarus, defeated by Zeus ​ Gigantomachy: 1.​ Battle against the Giants, children of Gaia 2.​ Depicted in Greek art as a symbol of Greek pride and civilization ​ Zeus and Metis: 1.​ Zeus marries Metis, the wisest of gods and mortals 2.​ Fearing that their child would overthrow him, Zeus swallows Metis, absorbing her wisdom 3.​ Athena is born from Zeus’s head ​ Prometheus and the Creation of Mortals: 1.​ Prometheus creates humans from clay and water 2.​ Tricks Zeus into giving humans meat, steals fire for humanity 3.​ Zeus punishes Prometheus by having him bound to Mt. Caucasus where his liver is eaten daily by an eagle ​ Pandora: 1.​ As punishment for Prometheus, Zeus creates Pandora, who opens a jar releasing all evils into the world 2.​ Only hope remains in the jar ​ Five Ages of Humankind: 1.​ Golden Age: Humans live under Cronus, with no aging or troubles 2.​ Silver Age: Humans are babies for a century, then wicked and deviant, wiped by Zeus 3.​ Bronze Age: War-like monstrous people