Korean Language Introduction PDF

Chapter 2: Human and Animal Language Six Distinct Features of Human Language 1 Reflexivity: ◦ Humans can use language to talk about language itself. ◦ Example: English is a lingua franca that people use worldwide to communicate. 2 Displacement: ◦ The ability to refer to places, ev...

Chapter 2: Human and Animal Language Six Distinct Features of Human Language 1 Reflexivity: ◦ Humans can use language to talk about language itself. ◦ Example: English is a lingua franca that people use worldwide to communicate. 2 Displacement: ◦ The ability to refer to places, events, or things that are not present or even non-existent. ◦ Example: I did my homework last night. (Bees can communicate the location of nectar through dance, but they can't refer to a completely new place or abstract concepts like humans can.) 3 Arbitrariness: ◦ The connection between words and their meanings is arbitrary. ◦ Example: The words "table" or "tree" have no inherent link to their physical forms. ◦ Exception: Onomatopoeic words, which imitate natural sounds (e.g., "cuckoo," "meow"), seem less arbitrary. However, even these words are conventionalized and vary across languages (e.g., the sound of a dog's bark is "woof" in English but "mung mung" in Korean). 4 Cultural Transmission: ◦ Language is passed down through generations via social interaction, not genetics. Humans are born with the ability to acquire language but must learn a specific language by interacting with their environment. ◦ Example: A Korean child raised in the U.S. may only speak English, showing that language is learned from exposure to people rather than inherited. 5 Productivity: ◦ Humans can manipulate language to create new expressions. ◦ Example: New words like "googling" or "rizz" demonstrate the flexibility of human language. 6 Duality: ◦ Language is structured at two levels: sounds and meanings. A limited set of sounds can be combined in various ways to create different words with different meanings. ◦ Example: The sounds [p], [a], [t] can combine to form "pat," "tap," and "apt," all with different meanings. Key Questions and Answers: 1 A Communication System with Productivity vs. Fixed Reference: ◦ A system with productivity is flexible and infinite, allowing for new expressions. ◦ A system with fixed reference, like animal communication, is limited in expressing different meanings. Animals typically have fixed signals, such as calls for food or danger, and cannot create new, creative messages like humans can. 2 Why Is Reflexivity Unique to Humans?: ◦ Reflexivity allows humans to use language to talk about language itself, something animals cannot do. This ability enables humans to reflect on language use, discuss its structure, and analyze how it works. 3 Arbitrariness in Human Language: ◦ The arbitrary nature of language means there is no inherent connection between a word and its meaning. ◦ Example: "Water" is expressed differently across languages, and the sound "li" may have various meanings in different contexts. ◦ This highlights that words are arbitrary, and meaning must be learned and agreed upon within a linguistic community.  4 Cultural Transmission of Language: ◦ Language is acquired through exposure, not inherited genetically. ◦ Example: A Korean person raised in America may only speak English if they are surrounded by English speakers. They learn the language spoken around them, not the language of their heritage unless exposed to it. 5. Onomatopoeia and Non-Arbitrariness: Onomatopoeia refers to words that imitate natural sounds, such as animal sounds like "cuckoo," "meow," "woof," or mechanical sounds like "buzz" and "clang." These words seem to directly represent the sounds they describe, supporting the idea of non-arbitrariness in language—where the connection between the word and its meaning is close. However, this feature of non-arbitrariness is limited. Even onomatopoeic words are influenced by linguistic and cultural factors, and different languages often have different expressions for the same sound. ◦ Example: The sound of a dog’s bark is "woof" in English, but "mung mung" in Korean. ◦ This shows that even onomatopoeic words are not universally fixed and vary from one language to another, demonstrating that they too are part of the arbitrariness in language. For non-arbitrariness: Onomatopoeia provides an example where words directly imitate the sounds they describe, such as "buzz" or "woof," creating a closer link between sound and meaning. Against non-arbitrariness: Even these words differ across languages. For instance, the sound of a dog’s bark changes from "woof" in English to "mung mung" in Korean, showing the influence of cultural conventions. 6. Displacement: Displacement refers to the ability to communicate about things that are not present in the immediate environment, or even things that do not exist. ◦ Example: Humans can talk about past events (What I did yesterday), future plans (What I will do tomorrow), and abstract concepts (heaven and hell). In contrast, most animal communication is limited to the present moment and the immediate context. Animals cannot discuss events from the past or future, nor can they talk about things that are imaginary or abstract. Chapter 3 : Phonetic Why focus on sound first? ‧ Spoken language is the primary means by which humans communicate. ‧ Humans learn to speak before they learn to write, making speech the most natural and fundamental mode of expression. Unique Physical Features of Humans for Speech Production: ‧ Teeth: Human teeth are upright and even in height, unlike apes' teeth, which are slanted. This helps produce sounds like /f/ and /v/. ‧ Lips: Humans have more complex muscle control in their lips, allowing for precise movements, essential for producing sounds like /p/, /m/, and /b/. ‧ Mouth: The human mouth is relatively small but capable of opening and closing quickly, aiding in the rapid articulation of speech sounds. ‧ Tongue: Humans have a shorter, thicker, and more muscular tongue that can shape a wide variety of sounds by moving around inside the oral cavity. ‧ Pharynx: The human pharynx is longer and acts as a resonating chamber, enhancing the range and clarity of the sounds produced by the larynx. ‧ Conclusion: Humans possess a complete vocal organ system optimized for producing a vast array of sounds necessary for speech. Phonetics vs. Phonology: ‧ Both fields study speech sounds, but they differ in focus: ◦ Phonetics: Concerned with how sounds are physically produced and the nature of those sounds. ◦ Phonology: Focuses on how sounds function within a specific language system—how they can be combined, patterned, and organized. Articulatory Phonetics: ‧ This branch of phonetics describes how speech sounds are made through the movements of vocal organs (lungs, trachea, larynx, mouth, and nose). ‧ When air is pushed up from the lungs, the specific movements within the vocal tract create unique sounds. ‧ The vocal tract extends from the nose and nasal cavity to the vocal cords deep in the throat. Human Vocal Tract: ‧ The pharynx gives the tongue room to move front and back, which is critical for shaping speech sounds. ‧ Nonhuman primates, like chimpanzees, have their larynx positioned high up in the mouth, directly connected to the nasal passages. This anatomical difference means they lack a pharynx, and as a result, they cannot produce the same variety of speech sounds as humans. How Are Different Sounds Produced?: ◦ Sounds are produced when air is expelled from the lungs and shaped by the movements and constrictions within the vocal tract. These movements involve various articulators. Consonants and Articulators: ◦ Active articulators (e.g., the tongue, lower lip) move to touch passive articulators (e.g., teeth, roof of the mouth) to shape the airflow during speech. ◦ Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at specific points, altering the airflow. The place and manner of this constriction determine the sound produced. Why Use the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)? ‧ Orthographic systems (standard writing systems) are often inadequate because a single symbol may represent multiple sounds. For instance: ◦ "damage" vs. "educate" – the letter "d" represents different sounds. ◦ "chain" vs. "choir" – the same "ch" spelling corresponds to different sounds. ◦ "blood" vs. "too" – the "oo" spelling represents different vowel sounds. ‧ The IPA resolves these inconsistencies by providing a system where there is a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and a symbol. This means each symbol represents exactly one sound, and each sound is represented by one symbol. ‧ Phonetic symbols are written in square brackets [ ] to distinguish them from regular spelling, allowing clarity when discussing speech sounds Four Parameters for Describing Consonants: 1 Voicing: ◦ Refers to what the larynx (voice box) is doing. A sound is voiced when the vocal cords vibrate, meaning air flows through the larynx and the vocal folds open and. close rapidly. For example, [b] and [z] are voiced sounds, while [p] and [s] are voiceless. 2 Nasality: ◦ Refers to what the velum (soft palate) is doing. A sound is nasal when the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nasal cavity. An example of a nasal sound is [m]. 3 Place of Articulation: ◦ Refers to which articulators are moving and where they are making contact. There are several places where the constriction can happen: ▪ Bilabials: Both lips come together (e.g., [p], [b], [m]). ▪ Labiodentals: The lower lip touches the upper teeth (e.g., [f], [v]). ▪ Dentals: The tongue touches the upper teeth (e.g., [θ] as in "think"). ▪ Alveolars: The tongue tip touches or comes close to the alveolar ridge (e.g., [t], [d], [s], [z]). ▪ Post-alveolars: The tongue touches the area just behind the alveolar ridge (e.g., [ʃ] as in "sh"). ▪ Palatals: The tongue touches the hard part of the palate (e.g., [j] as in "yes"). ▪ Velars: The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum (e.g., [k], [g]). ▪ Glottals: The vocal cords act as articulators, producing sounds like the glottal stop [ʔ] (as in the break in "uh- oh"). 4 Manner of Articulation: ◦ Refers to how much and what kind of constriction occurs in the vocal tract. It describes how the airflow is controlled and modified. Examples include: ▪ Stops: Complete closure of airflow (e.g., [p], [t]). ▪ Fricatives: Narrow constriction, causing turbulence (e.g., [f], [s]). ▪ Affricates: A combination of a stop and a fricative (e.g., [ʧ] as in "ch"). ▪ Nasals: Air flows through the nose (e.g., [m], [n]). ▪ Approximants: Liquids-raised and curled tongue, with airflow escaping through the sides Glides- tongue movement to or from a vowel Vowels (Monophthongs): ‧ Definition: Vowels are produced with a relatively free flow of air through the vocal tract. Four Parameters for Describing Vowels: 1 Tongue height: How high or low the tongue is (high, mid, low). 2 Tongue advancement: How far forward or back the tongue is (front, central, back). ◦ Example: [i] (front) vs. [u] (back). 3 Tenseness: Whether the vowel is tense or lax (more or less muscular tension). 4 Lip rounding: Whether the lips are rounded or unrounded during the sound. Diphthongs: ‧ Definition: A combination of two vowel sounds, where the tongue moves from one vowel position to another within the same syllable. Questions 1. Consonants are produced when the air flow are constructed and obstructed by specific articulators through vocal tract. Vowels are produced with a relatively free air flow through the vocal tract 2. Human possess a complete vocal organ system optimized for producing a vast array of sounds, necessary for speech while chimps don't, making them being not able to speak like human. 3. A spelling can have different ways of pronunciation. For example, "oo" of blood and moon is differnently pronouned as v~ and u 4. Voiceless sounds: are produced when the air flow passes freely through the opened vocal folds without vibration. Voiced sounds are produced when the air flow passes through the vocal folds, which is rapidly opened and closed, creating vibration. During the process, the muscles around the larynx adjust the tension of the vocal folds while the Adam's Apple moves up and down slightly to facilitate this. 5. Stop happens when the air flow is completely blocked and abruptly released. p,t,k b,d,g. Fricative occurs when the air flow passes through a narrow gap, creating turbulence. +, 5 S V E 2 3 , , , , , , 6. The words that do not take a plural 's' generally ends with a fricative or sibilant sound, adding an 's' would result phonetically awkward and redundant constrcutions. Hence, these words stay the same in both singular and plural forms. Chapter 4: Phonology 1. How do languages organize sounds to distinguish different words? Languages organize sounds into meaningful units called phonemes. Phonemes are classes of speech sounds that, when substituted, can change the meaning of a word. For example, in English, substituting the sound /p/ for /b/ in "pat" and "bat" changes the meaning, showing that /p/ and /b/ are distinct phonemes. The way phonemes are organized helps distinguish between words and meanings in a language. This organization also includes rules about where certain sounds can appear, what combinations are permissible, and how sounds interact with each other in context. 2. How are sequences of sounds restricted in each language? Each language has specific rules regarding which sounds can be placed together and where in a word they can occur. These rules are known as phonotactic constraints. For instance, in English: ‧ Words cannot begin with the sound sequence /ŋ/ (as in the final sound of "sing"). ‧ Certain clusters like /tl/ or /dl/ cannot occur at the beginning of words, while they are allowed in some other languages like Nahuatl. ‧ There are restrictions on vowel and consonant combinations, syllable structures, and which sounds can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of words. These restrictions vary from one language to another, creating unique sound patterns that are characteristic of each language. 3. What kind of changes (alternations) do sounds undergo? Sounds in languages undergo phonological alternations, where the pronunciation of a sound changes based on the context or environment in which it appears. Some common alternations include: ‧ Aspiration: Voiceless stops like /p/, /t/, and /k/ become aspirated (followed by a puff of air) when they occur at the beginning of a stressed syllable, as in words like "top," "kill," and "pool." However, they are not aspirated in other positions, like after an /s/ in "stop." ‧ Allophonic variation: Sounds change based on their position in a word or surrounding sounds. For example, in English, the phoneme /t/ can be pronounced as an aspirated [tʰ] in "top," or as an unreleased [t]̚ in "cat," but both are allophones of the phoneme /t/. ‧ Assimilation: A sound may change to become more similar to a neighboring sound, as in the word "input," where the /n/ becomes [m] before the /p/ to ease pronunciation. Nasalization: A sound becomes nasalized when it is influenced by a neighboring nasal sound, typically due to the lowering of the velum, allowing air to pass through the nose. Example: In English, the vowel in "hand" is nasalized because it is followed by the nasal consonant /n/. Elision: The process where a sound is omitted or deleted in certain phonological environments, often to simplify pronunciation. Example: In fast or casual speech, "camera" is often pronounced as /ˈkæmrə/, omitting the middle /ə/ sound. Phonemes vs Allophones 1. Phoneme: ‧ A phoneme is a class of speech sounds that native speakers perceive as the same sound in a language. For example, the sounds [tʰ] and [t] in English are both considered instances of the phoneme /t/. ‧ Phonemes are psychological categories of sounds, where native speakers mentally group similar sounds together even if they are pronounced slightly differently in different contexts. 2. Allophone:  ‧ An allophone is a specific variant or realization of a phoneme in a particular context. Allophones do not change the meaning of a word. ‧ Allophones are context-dependent: the actual physical sound (allophone) produced by speakers depends on the environment of the sound. For example, [tʰ] (aspirated /t/) in "top" and [t] (unaspirated /t/) in "stop" are allophones of the same phoneme /t/ in English. 3. Contrastive Distribution: ‧ Two sounds are said to be in contrastive distribution when they can occur in the same environment and changing one sound changes the meaning of the word. For example, /b/ and /p/ in "bat" and "pat" are in contrastive distribution because they appear in the same environment but lead to different meanings. ‧ Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ by only one sound but have different meanings, such as "ban" and "bun," or "pit" and "pat." Minimal pairs provide evidence that two sounds are in contrastive distribution and represent distinct phonemes. Key Features of Contrastive Distribution: ‧ Distinct phonemes: If two sounds can be used to create different words (as shown in minimal pairs), they are considered distinct phonemes. Substituting one for the other changes the meaning of the word. ‧ Aspiration: In languages like English, aspiration is a feature of voiceless stops (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/) when they appear at the beginning of a stressed syllable. For instance, in the word "top," the /t/ is aspirated [tʰ], but in "stop," it is unaspirated [t]. 4. Complementary Distribution ‧ Complementary distribution refers to a situation where two sounds never occur in the same phonetic environment. Instead, they appear in mutually exclusive environments, meaning one sound occurs in a particular context, and the other occurs in a different, non-overlapping context. ‧ These sounds are typically considered allophones of the same phoneme because they do not create a contrast in meaning between words, unlike phonemes in contrastive distribution. Key Features of Complementary Distribution: Mutually exclusive environments: Two sounds are said to be in complementary distribution if they never appear in the same phonetic context. For example, one sound might only appear at the beginning of a word, while the other only appears at the end. No meaning distinction: Because the two sounds cannot appear in the same environment, they do not distinguish different meanings. Therefore, the substitution of one for the other in the respective environments would not change the meaning of a word. Allophones of the same phoneme: Sounds that are in complementary distribution are considered allophones of the same underlying phoneme. Even though they are pronounced differently depending on the context, native speakers perceive them as the same sound. Questions 1. To determine wether d and are allophones of one phoneme or of separate phonemes, we have to distinguish whether they're are "complementary distribution" or if minimal pairs exist. In this case, we can see that d and can't simultaneously exist in the same phonetical environment. If d positions are in the initial part or after a nasal sound, 's positions are between two vowels. Therefore, they're belonged to complementary distribution, leading to the conclusion that d and are allophones of the same phoneme with d in a strongger, more stressed evironments and in weaker, intervocalic environments 1. The p appears in the word-initial and word-final positions or between two consonants. The b appears between two vowels or in intervocalic position. These two sounds don't totally exist in the same phonetical environment, which is feeature of complementary distribution but both can exist in the word-final positions, showing that they are in contrastive distribution. I'm not sure because I don't know the language, if I know exactly where there are any minimal pairs between them or not. 2. ㅂ can be translitered as /b/, /p/ , ㅍ /ph/(aspirated p). This can lead to misunderstanding in english because /p/, /ph/ are allophones of /p/, aspiration is not phonemic. However, in korean, they're distinct phonemes, which shows that aspiration can cause change in meaning, making it phonemic in Korean. 3. Reduction : ae-shwa Nasalization shwa~ Voicing assimilation: n-m Elision t 4. (3)kris, beginning with a consonant cluster and ending in a consonant. Because Japanese doesn't allow consonant clusters or ending in a consonant. tend to create open CV, not closed CVC. This phonotactics can turn that word into kurisu by adding vowel to break up consonant clusters and avoid ending in a consonant. 5. English doesn't allow a word starting with engma ( a velar nasal sound), due to its phonotactic constraints on word initial sounds, hence, this word can't exist Chapter 18+ File 10: Variation Question 1. Isogloss : a line that marks the distinction between the use of one language item ( word, pronunciation, grammatical structure) to another. Dialect Boundary : a solid boundary that is formed by multiple isoglosses, mapping broader features like culture 2. Pidgin : just a common language with simple grammar, limited vocab, used to communicate in specific fields like trading among those don't know each other's language. Creole : an official language developed from pidgin with completely developed grammar, vocabulary, has native speakers 3. Mandarin vs Cantonese are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, but share a common writing system; potically, speakers of two varieties consider themselves as members of the same country, hence these two are dialects of the same language. Papago vs Pima are mutually intelligible but native speakers do not considere them as distinct languages due to political and social distinctions. 4. It's common that non-standard variaties are considered as inferior, illogical and unsystematic. However, these varieties totally follow a consistent system about syntax, grammar,...For example, the use of multiple negatives in some varities like in Non-standard British English " She didn't say nothing while in Standard English " she didn't say anything". The former emphasize the negation in the sentence, it can be incorrect in standard English but in that dialect, it's common and consistently grammatical feature. Another example is the use of reflexive pronouns in two varieties of English, the standard one is using possessive noun or object pronoun+ self/selves while the non- standard is using only possessive pronoun +self/selves. It can be seen that the latter even follows a more consistent grammatiacl structure. Therefore, it's wrong to assess that non-standard varieties are illogical and inferiror 5. Prestige is tinged with the use of language in society. A high-prestige variety are usally considered as standard, and low-prestige are non-standard. However, using the non-standard variety can reinforce solidarity and shape group identity because of its characteristic features that only native speakers can understand. Slangs are usually used by a group community with the purpose of excluding outsiders and including insiders, hence, aiding in enhancing group identity. Non-standard varieties are stigmatized status, but using stigmatized accents or dialects can help express pride about heritage and conform the pressure of creating a more prestigous dialect. 6. Prestige shapes how language is viewed in society, with high-prestige varieties seen as standard and low-prestige ones as non-standard. Despite this, non-standard varieties can strengthen group identity and solidarity, as they include unique features understood by insiders. Slang further aids in group cohesion by creating exclusive codes that distinguish members from outsiders. Though non-standard varieties may carry a stigmatized status, using them can express pride in heritage and resist pressure to conform to more prestigious forms, reinforcing group identity. 7. Creolization is the process by which a pidgin- a simple language become a creole with completely developed complexity. 8. Decreolization occurs when a creole gradully loses it features and become closer to the parent's language ( standard language it originated from), often due to the polictical and social pressure.