MIDTERM MODULES.pdf

MODULE 3 Understanding the Codes and Careers for Civil Engineers EXPLORE Watch the following videos: Professionalism.mp4 Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers Wikipediaaudio article.mp4 Read the Republic Act 544 and Republic Act 545 RA 544 - https://thecorpusjuris.com/legislative/republic-acts/ra-no-544.php RA 545 - https://thecorpusjuris.com/legislative/republic-acts/ra-no-545.php EXPLAIN The Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers which was establishedon1937provided Civil Engineers with values and canons to live by as professionals. Architects and Civil Engineers have been in constant conflict as well withregards to professionalism with one profession accusingtheotherofworking outside their areas of competency and oversteppingboundariesof profession. Due to this the civil engineering law RA 544 andarchitecturelaw RA 545 has been put to work. ELABORATE Fundamental Principles Civil engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor anddignityofthe civil engineering profession by: 1. using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of humanwelfare and the environment; 2. being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity thepublic, theiremployers/employees and clients; 3. striving to increase the competence and prestige of thecivil engineering profession; and 4. supporting the professional and technical societies of their disciplines.Fundamental Canons 1. Civil Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, healthandwelfareof the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their duties. 2. Civil Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. 3. Civil Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objectiveandtruthful manner. 4. Civil Engineers shall act in professional matters for eachemployer orclient as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. 5. Civil Engineers shall build their professional reputation onthemeritoftheir services and shall not compete unfairly with others. 6. Civil Engineers shall act in such a manner as to upholdandenhancethe honor, integrity, and dignity of the civil engineeringprofession. 7. Civil Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for theprofessional development of those civil engineers under their supervision. Adopted in September 2001 as part of the Manual of Professional Practice for Civil Engineers published by the PhilippineInstituteof Civil Engineers. SITUATION An earthquake hits BaguioCity and demolishes several structures like the one you seeabove. Isthe designing civil engineer at fault? Explain your answer. ANSWER As professional civil engineerswe are not to throwdirt onother professionals without the authority and proper investigation. Civil Engineersshall not compete unfairly with others. A professional civil engineer shouldobserve proper etiquettes and avoid ‘’paninirang puri.” RA 544 – “An Act to Regulate the Practice of Civil EngineeringinthePhilippines” The practice of civil engineering within the meaning andintent of thisActshall embrace services in the form of consultation, design, preparationofplans, specifications, estimates, erection, installation andsupervisionoftheconstruction of streets, bridges, highways, railroads, airports andhangars,port works, canals, river and shore improvements, lighthouses, anddrydocks; buildings, fixed structures for irrigation, flood protection, drainage,water supply and sewerage works; demolition of permanent structures; and tunnels. The enumeration of any work in this section shall not beconstrued as excluding any other work requiring civil engineeringknowledge and application. The term “civil engineer” as used in this act shall mean apersondulyregistered with the Board for Civil Engineers in the manner as hereinafterprovided. RA 545 – “An Act to Regulate the Practice of ArchitectureinthePhilippines” The practice of architecture is hereby defined to be: The act of planning,architectural and structural designing, specifying, supervising, andgivinggeneral administration and responsible direction to the erection, enlargement or alterations of buildings and architectural designof engineering structures or any part thereof, the scientific, aestheticandorderly coordination of all the processes which enter into theproductionof a complete building or structure performed through themediumof unbiased preliminary studies of plans, consultations, specifications, conferences, evaluations, investigations, contract documents andoral advice and directions regardless of whether the persons engagedinsuchpractice are residents of the Philippines or have their principal officeor place of business in this or another country, and regardless of whether such persons are performing one or all of these duties, or whether suchduties are performed in person or as the directing head of anofficeor organization performing them. MODULE 4 Structural Engineering Understanding the Codes and Careers for Civ EXPLORE Watch the following videos: What is Structural Engineering.mp4 Structural Engineering Explained.mp4 Roles and Responsibilities of Structural Engineers.mp4 ENGAGE Structural engineering — a specialty within the field of civil engineering—focuses on the framework of structures, and on designingthosestructuresto withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment andremainsafe, stable and secure throughout their use. In other words, structural engineers make sure that buildings don't fall down andbridgesdon'tcollapse. EXPLAIN Structural engineering — a specialty within the field of civil engineering — focuses on the framework of structures, and on designing those structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable and secure throughout their use. In other words, structural engineers make sure that buildings don't fall down and bridges don't collapse. Basically, when Civil Engineers design our structures, we refer tothedesignof the dimensions of the buildings frame works i.e. beams, columns, walls,footings, slabs, and trusses. We design these structural members tobeable to carry loads. What are these loads? We have deadloads, liveloads, wind loads, earthquake loads, and moving loads. Basically, it is a Structural Engineer’s job to make sure that buildings don’tfall down. A couple of decades ago these design computations wereall donemanually which would definitely take a lot of time since thereareseparate computations for every beam, column, and slabof thewholestructure Because of today’s technological advancements Structural Engineersdesign with the help of software that are readily available. Thereareseveral different softwares available for Structural Engineers. TheyareSTAAD, ETABS, SAP2000, SAFE, and Prokon and many more. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES ASEP - The Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP)is the recognized organization of Structural Engineers of thePhilippines.Established in 1961, ASEP has been existence for more than 50 solid years. ASEP is known for its publications like the different volumes of the National Structural code of the Philippines, the approved referral codes of the Philippine National Building Code. In ASEP’s roster of members, you will find structural engineers of renowned structural ability, reliability and professionalism. NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines. This is the list of codes that we as Civil Engineers in the Philippines live by. This is basically our Bible. It containsall the information we would need in order to design structures. ELABORATE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS We as Civil Engineers are directly responsible for a structure’s framework. It is considered the skeleton of a building. The skeleton itself is composed of different members each with a different function but together serves as single functioning unit. Concrete frame structures are the most common type of modern building. It usually consists of a frame or a skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members are beams and vertical ones are the columns. Concrete Buildings structures also contain slabs which areusedasbase, as well as roof / ceiling. Among these, the column is the most importantasit carries the primary load of the building. SLABS These are the plateelement and carry the loads primarilybyflexure. They usually carry thevertical loads. Under the action of horizontal loads, due to a large moment of inertia, they can carry quitelargewindand earthquake forces, andthen transfer themto thebeam. BEAMS These carry the loads fromslabs and also the direct loads as masonry walls andtheir self- weights. The beams maybe supported on the other beamsor may be supportedby columns forming an integral part of the frame. These are primarilythe flexural members. COLUMNS These are thevertical members carryingloadsfrom the beams andfromupper columns. Theloads carried may be axial or eccentric. Columns arethemost important whencompared with beams andslabs. Thisis because, if one beam fails, it‘ll be a local failure of onefloor but if onecolumn fails, it can lead to the collapse of the whole structure. FOUNDATION These are the loadtransmitting members. The loads fromthe columns andwalls are transmitted to thesolidground through the foundations. SHEAR WALL These are important structural elements in high-rise buildings. Shear walls are actually very large columns because of which they appear like walls rather than columns. These take care of the horizontal loads like wind and earthquake loads. Shear walls also carry the vertical loads. It’s an important point to understand that they only work for horizontal loads in one direction, which is theaxis of longdimension of wall. ELEVATOR SHAFT These are the vertical concrete boxes in which theelevatorsare provided to moveupanddown. The elevator is actuallycontained in its own concretebox. These shafts act as very goodstructural elements which helpinresisting horizontal loads andalsocarry vertical loads. TRUSS A truss is anassemblyof beams or other elementsthat creates a rigidstructure. In engineering, atruss isa structure that "consists of two force members only, where the members areorganized so that the assemblageasa whole behaves as asingle object". A"two-force member" is astructural component whereforceis applied to only twopoints. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS This is basically what the members mentioned above carry. Thetypesofloads acting on structures for buildings and other structures canbebroadly classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and longitudinal loads.The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load and impact load. The horizontal loads comprise of wind load and earthquakeload. Thelongitudinal loads i.e. tractive and braking forces areconsideredinspecial case of design of bridges, gantry girders etc... In a construction of building two major factors consideredaresafetyandeconomy. If the loads are adjudged and taken higher theneconomyisaffected. If economy is considered and loads are taken lesser thenthesafety is compromised. TYPES OF LOADS on STRUCTURES and BUILDINGS 1. DEAD LOAD The first vertical load that is considered is dead load. Deadloadsarepermanent or stationary loads which are transferredtostructurethroughout the life span. Dead load is primarily duetoself-weightofstructural members, permanent partition walls, fixedpermanentequipment and weight of different materials. It majorlyconsistsofthe weight of roofs, beams, walls and column etc. whichareotherwise the permanent parts of the building. 2. LIVE LOAD The second vertical load that is considered in design of astructureisimposed loads or live loads. Live loads are either movableor movingloads without any acceleration or impact. These loads areassumedto be produced by the intended use or occupancy of thebuildingincluding weights of movable partitions or furniture etc... 3. WIND LOAD Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement ofairrelative to earth. Wind load is required to be consideredi structural design especially when the heath of the building exceeds twotimesthe dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface. 4. EARTHQUAKE LOAD Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical andhorizontal forceson the building. The total vibration caused by earthquakemayberesolved into three mutually perpendicular directions, usuallytakenas vertical and two horizontal directions. SOFTWARES USED BY STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS Once the Structural Engineers have the data of loads, theycanbegindesigning the structure itself. Making use of the following software Extended Three-dimensional Analysis of Building Systems - Theinnovative and revolutionary newETABSisthe ultimate integratedsoftware package for the structural analysis and design of buildings. Incorporating 40 years of continuous research and development, this latest ETABS offers unmatched3D object-based modelingand visualization tools, blazingly fast linear and nonlinear analytical power,sophisticated and comprehensive design capabilities for awide-rangeofmaterials, and insightful graphic displays, reports, and schematicdrawingsthat allow users to quickly and easily decipher and understandanalysisand design results. Structural Analysis and Design - Perform comprehensiveanalysisanddesign for any size or type of structure faster than ever beforeusingthenew STAAD.Pro CONNECT Edition. Simplify your BIMworkflowbyusingaphysical model in STAAD.Pro that is automatically convertedintotheanalytical model for your structural analysis. Share synchronizedmodelswith confidence for multi-discipline team collaboration and, most importantly, deliver safe, cost- effective designs. MODULE 5 Construction and Project Management Engineering EXPLORE Watch the following videos: StepByStep Construction.mp4 12 Steps of Construction.mp4 Foundation layout.mp4 Project phases.mp4 ENGAGE Construction engineeringisa professional disciplinethat deals with the designing, planning, construction andmanagementof infrastructures suchas roads, tunnels, bridges, airports, railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects. EXPLAIN Construction and Project Management, or CPM, involves theapplicationof technical and scientific knowledge to infrastructureconstructionprojects. While engineering focuses on design andconstructionmanagement is concerned with overseeing the actual construction, CPMoften represents a blend of both disciplines, bridgingdesignandmanagement or project execution. Construction engineeringmanagersmay have an educational background at both undergraduateandgraduate levels as well as experience in construction management techniques. Their skills may be applied widely to the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. Basically, project construction can be divided into 6 phases. 1. Conceptualization and Design 4. Construction 2. Pre-Construction 5. Testing andCommissioning3. Procurement 6. Owner Occupancy ELABORATE As construction engineers it is basically our job to overseeconstructionprojects from start to finish. We ensure that constructionissafe,economical, and productive. PHASES OF PROJECT CONSTRUCTION 1. CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DESIGN Normally, the conception of the project starts with theclient. Thisiswhere the dream begins as well as the research for the right location and the specifications/standards that should be followed. Depending on the project, the conception stage might vary. It can take anywhere from a few days to a few months or more, depending on how imminent is the need for the completion of the project. It goes without saying that construction workers usuallydon’t havemuch input during this stage, as the ball is still in thehands of theproject owner. Once the project is closer to fruition, it is time to sit downandtalkdesign. This is still a preliminary stage, which means that nothingisguaranteed at this point. Nevertheless, design is thestagewhereusually the bidding process begins. The team that is in charge of the design, led by an architect oranengineer, will need to make sure that each of the stateregulations and codes is met while respecting the vision of the project owneraswell as ensuring that the newly built structure will be usable. There are normally four different steps within the designstageandthey include programming and feasibility, schematicdesign, designdevelopment, and contract documents. During the programming and feasibility step, each of theobjectivesand goals of the project has to be outlined. Numerous decisionsaremade at this stage, including how large the buildingwill be, howspace will be used, and how many rooms will be needed. Once the contract documents are drawn up, everything is close to being finalized, because they contain the final drawings and specifications. These documents are used in the construction field by those placing bids to work on the project. 2. PRE-CONSTRUCTION The next stage of a construction project begins whenthebiddingiscompleted and the contractor has been chosen todothework. Assoon as the contractor is chosen, the project teamis put together. Typically, a project team has the task to prepare theconstructionsite before the work begins. As a rule, it consists of thefollowingspecialties: Contract administrator Project manager Superintendent Field engineer Health and safety manager In close collaboration with the contractor, the project teamisresponsible for visiting the field in order to completeasiteexamination. The site examination will allowthe project teamtodetect or predict any environmental challenges that might emergeduring the building process. Soil testing is also an integral part ofthisstep. When all information is collected, all plans and findings shouldbereviewed by the city authorities. This is usually a longprocedure, asall concerns and opinions should be heard and addressed. 3. PROCUREMENT OF MATERIALS Now it’s time for the project team to order and obtainmaterials, equipment, and workforce. This stage of the project canbemoreorless complex and challenging depending on howbigtheprojectis,the available resources and the agreed start date. Many of the big construction companies have their ownprocurement departments. In such cases, it is commonthat theconstruction company will simultaneously order labourers, equipment and materials for a number of projects. This processmight vary a lot in smaller projects. The typical heavy equipment used in large scale constructionareasfollows: BACKHOE— also called excavator — is a type of excavating equipment, or digger, consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two- part articulated arm. ROAD ROLLER - compactor-type engineering vehicle usedtocompact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt inthe construction of roads andfoundations. Similar rollers are usedalsoat landfills or in agriculture. Roadrollersare frequently referred toas steamrollers, regardless of their methodof propulsion CRANE A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places The typical workforce of any construction consists of the following: 1. FOREMAN or CAPATAZ – in charge of leading the workforce2. LEADMAN – works as the foreman’s right hand 3. CARPENTERS – works on formworks 4. STEELMEN – works with reinforcing steel bars 5. MASONS – works with concreting 6. LABORERS – works on manual labor jobs 7. ELECTRICIANS – works on providing electricity to the constructionsite8. PLUMBERS – in charge of plumbing fixtures 9. HEAVY EQUIPMENT OPERATORS – operates heavy machinery 10. WAREHOUSEMAN – in charge of keeping tabs onconstructionmaterials and equipment 11. WELDERS – in charge of welding 4. CONSTRUCTION Before the construction work begins, a pre-constructionmeetingisdone to ensure that everyone is on the same pagewhentheconstruction starts. This meeting normally includes informationaboutthe following topics: how to access the job site the quality control of the project how and where to store all the materials the hours that everyone will be working Each worker may be given their own schedule. It is alsoimportanttonote that the schedule of each project agent might varydependingon their role. This is especially true for subcontractors whoneedcertain parts of the job completed before they canbegintheirportion. It easily becomes evident that bad planningat thispointcan lead to serious delays and budget overruns. Once the meeting is over and there are no lingeringquestions, thevery first step of the project can begin. The goal at this point istohave planned everything so carefully that everythinggoesoffwithout a hitch. Of course, that rarely happens, as somethingalwaysgoes wrong during a construction project. The typical stages of construction include: 1. Site preparation – includes the clearing of unwantedobstructionsin the construction site. 2. Lay out – Noting all points of importance like boundariesandlocation of foundation. 3. Gravel laying – Laying of gravel bed where foundationwill stand.4. Laying steel reinforcement and batter boards for concretepouring. 5. Concrete pouring 6. Installation of reinforcing steel bars 7. Installation of formworks 8. Concrete pouring 9. Repetition of steps 6, 7, and 8 till completion. 10. Finishing 5. TESTING AND COMMISSIONING This phase includes making sure that everything works as theyshould.Making sure the electricity works, plumbing works, paint is appliedcorrectly, tiles are set properly, and everything is inplacefor theowner. 6. OWNER OCCUPANCY Once the tests are finished, it is now ready to be occupiedbytheclient. Now that the training is completed, the owner cantakeover thebuilding. This is when the warranty period is on. Inthat way, theproject owner can feel safe that there is enough timetoexamineall the different systems, equipment, and materials that havebeeninstalled. TYPICAL TERMS USED IN WIKANG FILIPINO 1. POSTE - COLUMN 2. HALIGE - WALL 2. GUILILAN - GIRDER 3. SULERAS - JOIST 10. KOSTILYAHE - CEILINGJOIST 11. TABIKE - SIDING(EXTERNAL) 12. PILARETE - STUD(VERTICAL) 13. PABALAGBAG- STUD(HORIZONTAL) 4. SAHIG, SUELO - FLOORING 14. PASAMANO- WINDOWSILL 5. SEPO - GIRT d. BIGA - BEAM 15. SUMBRERO- WINDOWHEAD 16. HAMBA - WINDOWJAMB/ DOOR 7. BARAKILAN - BOTTOM CHORD JAMB 8. REOSTRA - PURLIN 17. SINTURON - COLLAR PLATE 9. SENEPA - FASCIA BOARD 18. HARDINERA - STRINGER(OPEN) 19. MADRE (de escalera) - STRINGER (CLOSED) 20. BAYTANG - TREAD 21. TAKIP (SILIPAN) - RISER 22. GABAY - HANDRAIL 23. MULDURA - MOULDING 24. SIBE - EAVE 25. BOLADA - PROJECTION 26. BALANGKAS - FRAME WORK 27. KANAL - GUTTER 28. ALULOD - CONDUCTOR 29. PLANCHUELA - W. I. STRAP 30. PIERNO - BOLT 31. PLANCHA - SCAFFOLDING 32. ESTAKA - STAKE 33. KUSTURADA - PLASTERED COURSE 34. PALITADA - STUCCO OR PLASTER 35. REBOCADA - SCRATCH COAT 36. PIKETA - PICKWORK (on masonry) 37. MONYEKA - VARNISH FINISH 38. BIENTO - SPACING OF GAP 39. LARGA MASA - CONCRETE SLAB (rough) 40. ASINTADA - ALIGNMENT 41. HULOG - PLUMB LINE 42. BALDOSA - CEMENT TILE 43. LADRILYO - CEMENT BRICK 44. BATIDORA - DOOR FILLET 45. KANAL - GROOVE 46. HASPE - GOOD GRAIN 47. PLANTILYA - PATTERN / SCHEDULE 48. BISAGRA - HINGE 49. DE BANDEHA - PANELED DOOR 50. ESCOMBRO - EARTHFILL 51. LASTILYAS - MASONRY FILL 52. LIYABE - ADOBE ANCHOR 53. HINANG - SOLDER 54. ESTANYO - NICOLITE BAR 55. SUBAN, SUBUHAL - TEMPER (metal work) 56. PIE DE GALLO - DIAGONAL BRACE 57. PUNSOL - NAIL SETTER 58. POLEYA - WIRING KNOB 59. ESPOLON - CABINET HING MODULE 6 Geotechnical Engineering EXPLORE Watch the following videos: What is Geotechnical Engineering.mp4 4 importance of Geotechnical Engineering.mp4 Geotechnical Engineering.mp4 ENGAGE Geotechnics is anengineering discipline that deals withsoil and rock behaviour inanengineering perspective. It alsoinvolves assessing slopestabilityandthe risk of landslides, rockfall and avalanches. Knowing that Geotechnical Engineering deals with soil, nameCivil Engineeringstructures that are at one point connected to soil. 1. ________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________ 4. ________________________________________ 5. ________________________________________ EXPLAIN “Soil Mechanics arrived at the borderline between science and art. I use the term “art” to indicate mental processes leading to satisfactory results without the assistance of step-for-step logical reasoning…To acquire competence in the field of earthwork engineering one must live with the soil. One must love it and observe its performance not only in the laboratory but also in the field, to become familiar with those of its manifold properties that are not disclosed by boring records…” - Karl Von Terzaghi Karl von Terzaghi (October 2, 1883 – October 25, 1963) was anAustrianmechanical engineer, geotechnical engineer, and geologist knownasthe"Father of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering". Geotechnical Engineering has advance so much since the timeof Karl Terzaghi,but we wouldn’t be here enjoying them if it weren’t for thefindingsbyourpredecessors. From a scientific perspective, geotechnical engineeringlargelyinvolvesdefining the soil's strength and deformation properties. Clay, silt, sand, rockandsnow are important materials in geotechnics. Geotechnical engineeringincludes specialist fields such as soil and rock mechanics, geophysics,hydrogeology and associated disciplines such as geology. Geotechnicalengineering and engineering geology are a branch of civil engineering. The specialisminvolvesusing scientific methods andprinciplesof engineering to collect andinterpret the physical properties ofthe ground for useinbuildingand construction. Its practical application, e.g. foundation engineering, has cometorequirea scientific approach. Theterm geotechnics is currentlyusedto describe both thetheoretical and practical applicationof the discipline. Basically, every type of structure known to man is at one point connectedtosoil.Making Geotechnical Engineering one with paramount importanceintoday’ssociety. A few of the structures directly in contact with soil areretainingwalls,foundations, and roads. ELABORATE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the uncementedaggregateofmineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) withliquidandgasin the empty spaces between the solid particles. Soil is usedas aconstructionmaterial in various civil engineering projects, and it supports structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of soil, suchasitsorigin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility, shear strength,and load-bearing capacity. Soil mechanics is the branch of sciencethatdealswith the study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil massessubjected to various types of forces. Soils engineering is theapplicationoftheprinciples of soil mechanics to practical problems. Geotechnical engineeringisthe subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials foundcloseto the surface of the earth. It includes the application of theprinciplesofsoilmechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retainingstructures, and earth structures. Typically, soil is classified into 4 main types. 1. Sandy Soil The first type of soil is sand. It consists of smallparticles of weathered rock. Sandy soils areone of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor water holding capacity, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soilisvery good for the drainage system. Sandy soilisusually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz. 2. Silty Soil Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite finequality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by moving currents, and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared tothe other three types of soil. Therefore, it is also usedinagriculturalpractices to improve soil fertility. 3. Clayey Soil Clay is the smallest particle amongst the othertwo types of soil. The particles in this soil aretightly packed together with each other withvery little or no airspace. This soil has very good water storage qualities and makes it hard for moistureandairtopenetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smoothwhendried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil whichdoes notdrainwell or provide space for plant roots to flourish. 4. Loamy Soil Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such thatthe beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all three types of soilmaterials being sandy, clay, and silt, and it alsohappens to have humus. Apart from these, it also has higher calciumandpH levels because of its inorganic origins. From a general perspective, “soil” is a very broad termandrefers tothelooselayer of earth that covers the surface of the planet. The soil is thepartoftheearth’s surface, which includes disintegrated rock, humus, inorganicandorganic materials. For soil to form from rocks, it takes an averageof 500yearsormore. The soil is usually formed when rocks break up into their constituentparts.When a range of different forces acts on the rocks, they break intosmallerpartsto form the soil. These forces also include the impact of wind, water andthereaction from salts. There are three stages of soil: 1. Solid soil 2. Soil with air in the pores 3. Soil with water in the pores Soil can be classified into three primary types based on its texture–sand,silt,and clay. However, the percentage of these can vary, resultinginmorecompound types of soil such as loamy sand, sandy clay, silty clay, etc OVERVIEW OF SOIL The ground on which we walk is never quite the same; it keeps onchanging.Sometimes, it is made up of millions of tiny sand granules andother times; itisahard, rocky surface. Other places have the ground coveredwithmossandgrass. When humans came along, the landscape slowly changedwiththeintroduction of roads and rails. EVALUATE 1. State the classifications of soil. 2. State the characteristics of sandy soil. 3. Explain the significant features of a silty soil. 4. Explain the characteristic of Clayey soil. MODULE 7 Subsurface Explorations and Types of Foundations EXPLORE How is subsurface exploration relevant to other sub-disciplines of civil engineering, say for transportation engineering? ENGAGE For structures which transmit heavy load on the soil, up to what natureandextent of soil exploration is needed so as to provide data whichwill helpintheselection of proper types of foundation, its location and designof foundations. EXPLAIN What is Subsurface Exploration? ▪ Investigation of the underground conditions at a site for theeconomical design of the substructure elements. For most major structures, adequate subsoil exploration at theconstructionsitemust be conducted. The purposes of subsoil exploration includethefollowing: 1. Determining the nature of soil at the site and its stratification. 2. Obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for visual identificationand appropriate laboratory tests. 3. Determining the depth and nature of bedrock, if and whenencountered4. Performing some in situ field tests, such as permeability tests, vanesheartests, and standard penetration tests. 5. Observing drainage conditions from and into the site. 6. Assessing any special construction problems with respect totheexistingstructure(s) nearby. 7. Determining the position of the water table. A soil exploration program for a given structure can be dividedbroadlyintofourphases: 1. Compilation of the existing information regarding the structure. 2. Collection of existing information for the subsoil condition. 3. Reconnaissance of the proposed construction site. 4. Detailed site investigation. Generally soil exploration should be advanced to a depthuptowhichtheincrease in pressure due to structural loading will have nodamagingeffect(such as settlement & shear failure) on the structure. In other words, thedepthat which soil does not contribute settlement of foundation. This depthistermedas significant depth. Significant depth. METHODS OF EXPLORATION A. Open Excavations Trial pits are applicable to all types of soils, which provide visual inspectionofsoilin their natural condition in either disturbed or undisturbedstate. Heredepthofinvestigation is limited to 3 to 3.5m. There are 2 ways: 1. Pits and trenches 2. Drifts and Shafts B. Boring Tests Exploratory bore holes are excavated in relatively soft soil closetoground.Thelocation, spacing and depth depends on type, size and weight of thestructure.Bore holes are generally located at: ▪ The building corners ▪ The center of the site ▪ The place at which heavily loaded columns are proposed▪ At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum When the depth of excavation is large, vertical boring methods areadopted.Samples are extracted from bore holes and tested in laboratory. GWTislocatedand In situ tests are carried using bore holes. Boring Methods ▪ Auger Boring ▪ Wash Boring ▪ Percussion Boring ▪ Core Boring or Rotary Drilling C. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS Geo-physical methods are used when the depth of explorationisverylarge, and also when the speed of investigation is of primaryimportance.The major method of geo-physical investigations are: gravitationalmethods, magnetic methods, seismic refraction method, andelectricalresistivity method. Out of these, seismic refraction methodandelectricalresistivity methods are the most commonly used for Civil Engineeringpurposes. It is a non-intrusive method of “seeing” intotheground.Geophysical methods include surface and down-holemeasurementtechniques which provide details about subsurface hydrogeologicandgeologic conditions. These methods have also been appliedtodetectingcontaminant plumes and locating buried waste materials. Somemethodsare quite site specific in their performance. FACTORS AFFECTING THE SAMPLE DISTURBANCE ▪ Area Ratio ▪ Inside clearance ▪ Outside clearance ▪ Inside wall friction ▪ Design of non-return valve ▪ Methods of applying forces ▪ Recovery ratio ELABORATE TYPES OF FOUNDATION Following are different types of foundations used in construction: 1. Shallow foundation ▪ Individual footing or isolated footing ▪ Combined footing ▪ Strip foundation ▪ Raft or mat foundation 2. Deep Foundation ▪ Pile foundation ▪ Drilled Shafts or caissons Types of Shallow Foundations a. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most commontypeof foundation used for building construction. This foundationis constructedfor a single column and also called a pad foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle andis usedwhenloads from the structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculatedbasedon the load on the column and the safe bearing capacity of soil. Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundationexperiencesmoments due to the eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces. b. Combined Footing Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns arecloseenough and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is acombinationof isolated footings, but their structural design differs. The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used whenloads fromthestructure is carried by the columns. c. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings Spread footings are those whose baseis wider than a typical load- bearing wall foundation. The widerbase of this footing type spreads theweight from the building structure over more area and provides better stability. Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, wallsand bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m(10feet) fromtheground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient tosupport theweight of the structure over the base area of the structure. These should not be used on soils where there is any possibilityof agroundflow of water above bearing layer of soil which may result inscour or liquefaction. d. Raft or Mat Foundations Raft or mat foundations are the typesof foundation which are spread across the entire area of the building to support heavy structural loadsfrom columns and walls. The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the structure oncolumns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a singlemat (or combined footing) of all the load-bearing elements of thestructure. It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for thesuitability of spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundationis economical when one-half area of the structure is coveredwithindividualfootings and wall footings are provided. These foundations should not be used where the groundwater tableisabove the bearing surface of the soil. The use of foundationinsuchconditions may lead to scour and liquefaction. Types of Deep Foundation a. Pile Foundations Pile foundation is a type of deepfoundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure to a hard rock strata muchdeep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hardsoil strata which is much below ground level where shallowfoundationssuch as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is alsousedto prevent uplift of the structure due to lateral loads suchas earthquakeand wind forces. Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions neartheground surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depthof hardrockstrata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep fromthegroundsurface. Pile foundation resists the loads from the structure by skinfrictionandbyend bearing. The use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations. b. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, isatype of deep foundation and has an action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resistsloads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and/or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger. Drilled shafts can transfer column loadslarger than pile foundations. It is used where the depth of hard strata below ground level is locatedwithin10mto 100m (25 feet to 300 feet). Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable whendeepdepositsofsoft clays and loose, water-bearing granular soils exist. It is alsonot suitablefor soils where caving formations are difficult to stabilize, soils madeupofboulders, artesian aquifer exists. MODULE 8 Water Resources Engineering Concepts andStructures EXPLORE From where does the water you drink come? Sure, it probably comes outofasink faucet or drinking fountain, but where was it before that? ENGAGE Describe the differences between streams, rivers and lakes. Describe the differences between surface and groundwater. EXPLAIN Water Resources Engineering - branch of civil engineering concerned with maximizing the social and economic benefit associated with the world’s water resources while minimizing the adverse environmental impacts due to modifications to the natural environment. - deals with the principles and analysis of water resources systemssuchas:multi-purpose reservoir, water supply distribution system, stormwaterdrainage, irrigation system, and agricultural drainage system. - Special topics: river and flood control, drought mitigationandwaterresource planning management. - - Uses of Water (Beneficial Use) 1. for domestic purposes - drinking, washing, bathing, cooking, or other household needs, home gardens and watering of lawns or domesticanimals 2. for municipal purposes - water requirements of the community3. for irrigation – for producing agricultural crops 4. for power generation - producing electrical or mechanical power 5. for fisheries - propagation of culture of fish as a commercial enterprise6. for livestock raising - for large herds or flocks of animals raisedas acommercial enterprise 7. for industrial purposes - in factories, industrial plants andmines, includingthe use of water as an ingredient of a finished product 8. for recreational purposes - swimming pools, bath houses, boating, waterskiing, golf courses, and other similar facilities in resorts andother placesofrecreation. Surface water and groundwater resources Principles of Water Resources 1. Principle of planning for water resource projects 2. Planning for prioritizing water resource projects 3. Concept of basin – wise project development 4. Demand of water within a basin 5. Structural construction for water projects 6. Concept of inter – basin water transfer project 7. Tasks for planning a water resources project Need for a scientific planning strategy 1. Gradual decrease of per capita available water on this planet andespecially in our country. 2. Water being used for many purposes and the demands varyintimeandspace. 3. Water availability in a region – like county or state or watershedisnotequally distributed. 4. The supply of water may be from rain, surface water bodies andgroundwater. ELABORATE Development of water resources Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortagesand quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention.Requirement of technological/engineering intervention for developmentofwater resources to meet the varied requirements of man or thehumandemandfor water, which are also unevenly distributed, is hence essential. The development of water resources, though a necessity, is nowpertinenttobemade sustainable. The concept of sustainable development impliesthatdevelopment meets the needs of the present life, without compromisingontheability of the future generation to meet their own needs. Sustainable Water Utilization The quality of water is being increasingly threatened by pollutant load, whichison the rise as a consequence of rising population, urbanization, industrialization,increased use of agricultural chemicals, etc. Both the surfaceandgroundwaterhave gradually increased in contamination level. Technological interventioninthe form of providing sewerage system for all urban conglomerates, lowcostsanitation system for all rural households, water treatment plants for all industriesemanating polluted water, etc. has to be made. Contaminationof groundwater due to over-exploitation has also emerged as a serious problem.Itisdifficult to restore ground water quality once the aquifer is contaminated.Ground water contamination occurs due to human interferenceandalsonatural factors. To promote human health, there is urgent needtopreventcontamination of ground water and also promote and developcost-effectivetechniques for purifying contaminated ground water for useinrural areaslikesolar stills. In summary, the development of water resources potential shouldbesuchthatin doing so there should not be any degradation in the quality or quantityoftheresources available at present. Thus the development shouldbesustainableforfuture. Structural tools for water resource development Dams are detention structures for storing water of streams andrivers. Thewaterstored in the reservoir created behind the dammay beusedgradually,depending on demand. Barrages are diversion structures which help to divert a portionof thestreamand river for meeting demands for irrigation or hydropower. Theyalsohelptoincrease the level of the water slightly which may be advantageousfromthepoint of view of increasing navigability or to provide a pondfromwherewatermay be drawn to meet domestic or industrial water demand. Canals/Tunnels are conveyance structures for transportingwater overlongdistances for irrigation or hydropower. These structural options are used to utilize surface water to its maximumpossibleextent. Other structures for utilizing ground water include rainwater detentionstanks, wells and tube wells. MODULE 9 Traffic Engineering and Management Concepts EXPLORE Have you ever noticed times when the roads are filled with cars andothertimeswhen the roads are free of vehicles? Has anyone noticed that themorecarsonthe road, the slower speeds your parents drive or the longer it takes for youtoarrive at your destination? Has an accident or a car with ablowntireontheside of the road ever caused your parents to slow down, allowingsurroundingcars to get closer? These are all descriptions of congestion, which you may haveheardyourparents talk about. It is simply roads full of cars, trucks andbuses. Themorevehicles that are on a roadway the more congested it is, andusuallyit leadstostopped or stop-and-go movement. Engineers like to describecongestionasanexcess of vehicles on a portion of roadway at a particular timeresultinginspeeds that are slower than normal. Also, one roadway may becongestedwhile another one nearby may not be. The amount, locationandtimeofcongestion are always changing. ENGAGE So, why do you think it is important to understand congestion? Well, wholikestobe stuck in traffic when you can be doing something else? What are some examples? When have you noticed the roads filledwithcars?(Possible examples: Mornings on the way to school, evening"rushhour" around5 pm, etc.) What roadways are filled with lots of cars most of the time? EXPLAIN TRAFFIC ENGINEERING Phase of transportation engineering that deals with planning, geometricdesign and traffic operations of roads , streets, and highways andtheirnetworks, terminals and relationships with other modes of transportation TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT The LTO, PNP-TMG, and MMDA are the primary agencies responsibleforenforcement and apprehension of offenders o TMG - Traffic Management Group o For PNP-RTMO’s , a personnel is dispatched on strategicchokepointsand major thoroughfares to conduct traffic directionandcontrol toensure the smooth flow of traffic o Other functions of TMG’s: - traffic accident investigation - traffic safety education through seminars andconferences LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK Laws Governing traffic safety and regulations EXECUTIVE ORDER (EO) 125 ▪ reorganized the Ministry of Transportation and CommunicationsintoaDepartment ▪ defined its powers and functions ▪ establishment of Land Transportation Office as the sectoral agencyresponsible for implementing and carrying out policies, rules, andregulations governing the land transportation systemof thecountry Republic Act 6975 ▪ established the DILG ▪ creation of the PNP ▪ Traffic Management Group reorganized as the trafficenforcementarmof the PNP covering national roads Executive Order (EO) 202 ▪ created the LTFRB with its functions pursuant to the PublicServiceAct Commonwealth Act 146 (Public Service Act) ▪ Gives the LTFRB power to compel any public service provider tofurnishsafe, adequate, and proper service as regards the manner of furnishingthe same as well as the maintenance of necessary materials andequipment RA 8750 (Seat Belts Use Act of 1999) ▪ Mandatory use of seatbelts for both drivers and front-seat passengersofpublic and private vehicles ▪ Back-seat passengers in private cars are also requiredtowear seatbelts ▪ Bans children under age 6 to sit in the front-seat of any vehicle RA 10054 (Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009) ▪ Requires motorbike drivers and riders to wear standardprotectivemotorcycle helmets with DTI prescribed specifications ▪ Doesn’t require the proper way to wear motorcycle helmets ▪ Doesn’t cover electric motorcycle or e-bikes RA 10586 (Anti Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013 ▪ Motorist are prohibited to drive if under the influenceof alcohol, drugsor other inebriating substances ▪ Enforcers are required to assess any motorist suspectedtobeundertheinfluence of alcohol by checking their level of sobriety RA 10666 (Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015) ▪ Prohibits children from boarding two-wheeled vehicles runningfasterthan 60 kph on public roads ▪ Allows children to ride as long as they can comfortably reachtheirfeeton the foot peg, reach their arms around the driver’s waist andwearahelmet ▪ Doesn’t apply for urgent medical attention RA 10913 (Anti- Distracted Driving Act of 2016) ▪ Motorist are banned from “using mobile communications device: write,send, or read a text-based message or to make or receivecallsexceptwhen done hands-free ▪ use of such devices are not allowed when vehicle is inmotionor stopped at red traffic light RA 10916 (Road Speed Limiter Act of 2016) ▪ Public utility vehicles, closed vans, cargo trailers, shuttleserviceor tanker trucks are not allowed to ply roads without astandardlimiterapproved by DOTr RA 11229 (Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act) ▪ No child under 12 years of age is allowed to sit in a front seat of amotorvehicle with running engine unless the child meets theright height requirement of at least 150 cm (4’ 11”) and is properly securedusingregular seat belt ▪ Requires the use of child restrained system RA 11229 (Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act) ▪ Signed 22Feb2019 ▪ Guarantee safety and welfare of infants and childrenandpreventtraffic – related deaths and injuries ▪ Repeals Sec. 5 of RA 8750 ▪ Use of child restraint system in public utility vehicles arestill under studyby the DOTr for recommendations ELABORATE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ▪ Activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency toimproveroadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for bothprovidersand consumers of transportation service Two (2) distinct types of traffic management 1. traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices toregulateandcontrol traffic 2. advanced technology through the use of Intelligent TransportationSystems (ITS) TRAFFIC REGULATIONS ❑ must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle anddriver ❑ must be reasonable and effective ❑ dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments Effective Traffic Regulation ✔ must be rational ✔ must be developed progressively ✔ must be in conjunction with control devices, planning, andpoliciesThree Elements of the Road System For ROADS and VEHICLES ✔ subject to constant change and improvement ✔ may be considered inflexible over time ✔ most effective control for number of vehicle is vehicleregistrationFor DRIVERS ✔ licensing is the most effective way of controllingthenumber ofdrivers worldwide TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES ❑ are means to advised road uses of detailed requirements or conditionsaffecting road use ❑ Given at specific places and times in order for proper actions tobetakenand to delay or avoid accident Three Distinct Functional Groups a. Regulatory devices - have the authority of lawandimposepreciserequirements upon the actions of the road user b. Warning devices - used to inform road users of potentiallyhazardousroadway conditions or unusual traffic movements that arenotreadily apparent to passing traffic c. Guiding devices - employed simply to informthe roaduser of route,destination, and other pertinent traffic TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES Four (4) Elementary Requirements ▪ every traffic control device must be able to meet the followingrequirements (FHWA 1988) a. should compel attention b. should convey a simple clear meaning at a glancec. should allow adequate time for easy response d. should command the respect of the road users for whomit isintended **MUST BE MET IN LOGICAL SEQUENCE TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS ▪ are employed more frequently than any other devices ▪ normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc▪ specialized types of traffic signs - messages are in contrast withthecolorand brightness of the pavement or other background CLASSIFICATIONS according to USE a. Regulatory: ▪ intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or prohibitions with which they must comply b. Warning: ▪ intended to warn users of a danger on the road andtoinformthemof its nature c. Informative: ▪ intended to guide users while they are traveling ELEMENTS OF DESIGN a. SHAPE b. COLOR c. SIZE a. minimum dimensions depend upon the intendedapplicationsb. Larger sizes : at wider roadways and on high speedhighwayc. There are four sizes based on the speed of the facility for regulatorysigns ▪ A for urban low-speed road ▪ B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kphand70kph▪ C for high-speed rural highways ▪ D for expressways d. ILLUMINATION & REFLECTORIZATION a. intended to convey messages during both daytimeandnighttimeb. At night time, achieved through illumination or by usingreflectivematerials for signs e. HEIGHT OF SIGNS ▪ mounted approximately at right angles to the direction, andfacingthe traffic ▪ generally placed on the right side of the roadway ▪ overhead signs are often necessary for wider roads ▪ For roads with median, may be placed on both sides ▪ may also be placed on channelized islands

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