Midterm Modules PDF

MODULE 3 Understanding the Codes and Careers for Civil Engineers EXPLORE Watch the following videos: Professionalism.mp4 Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers Wikipedia audio article.mp4 Read the Republic Act 544 and Republic Act 545 RA 5...

MODULE 3 Understanding the Codes and Careers for Civil Engineers EXPLORE Watch the following videos: Professionalism.mp4 Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers Wikipedia audio article.mp4 Read the Republic Act 544 and Republic Act 545 RA 544 - https://thecorpusjuris.com/legislative/republic-acts/ra-no- 544.php RA 545 - https://thecorpusjuris.com/legislative/republic-acts/ra-no- 545.php EXPLAIN The Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers which was established on 1937 provided Civil Engineers with values and canons to live by as professionals. Architects and Civil Engineers have been in constant conflict as well with regards to professionalism with one profession accusing the other of working outside their areas of competency and overstepping boundaries of profession. Due to this the civil engineering law RA 544 and architecture law RA 545 has been put to work. ELABORATE Fundamental Principles Civil engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the civil engineering profession by: 1. using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare and the environment; 2. being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public, their employers/employees and clients; 3. striving to increase the competence and prestige of the civil engineering profession; and 4. supporting the professional and technical societies of their disciplines. Fundamental Canons 1. Civil Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their duties. 2. Civil Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. 3. Civil Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. 4. Civil Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. 5. Civil Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others. 6. Civil Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the civil engineering profession. 7. Civil Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those civil engineers under their supervision.  Adopted in September 2001 as part of the Manual of Professional Practice for Civil Engineers published by the Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers. SITUATION An earthquake hits Baguio City and demolishes several structures like the one you see above. Is the designing civil engineer at fault? Explain your answer. ANSWER As professional civil engineers we are not to throw dirt on other professionals without the authority and proper investigation. Civil Engineers shall not compete unfairly with others. A professional civil engineer should observe proper etiquettes and avoid ‘’paninirang puri.” RA 544 – “An Act to Regulate the Practice of Civil Engineering in the Philippines” The practice of civil engineering within the meaning and intent of this Act shall embrace services in the form of consultation, design, preparation of plans, specifications, estimates, erection, installation and supervision of the construction of streets, bridges, highways, railroads, airports and hangars, port works, canals, river and shore improvements, lighthouses, and dry docks; buildings, fixed structures for irrigation, flood protection, drainage, water supply and sewerage works; demolition of permanent structures; and tunnels. The enumeration of any work in this section shall not be construed as excluding any other work requiring civil engineering knowledge and application. The term “civil engineer” as used in this act shall mean a person duly registered with the Board for Civil Engineers in the manner as hereinafter provided. RA 545 – “An Act to Regulate the Practice of Architecture in the Philippines” The practice of architecture is hereby defined to be: The act of planning, architectural and structural designing, specifying, supervising, and giving general administration and responsible direction to the erection, enlargement or alterations of buildings and architectural design of engineering structures or any part thereof, the scientific, aesthetic and orderly coordination of all the processes which enter into the production of a complete building or structure performed through the medium of unbiased preliminary studies of plans, consultations, specifications, conferences, evaluations, investigations, contract documents and oral advice and directions regardless of whether the persons engaged in such practice are residents of the Philippines or have their principal office or place of business in this or another country, and regardless of whether such persons are performing one or all of these duties, or whether such duties are performed in person or as the directing head of an office or organization performing them.  MODULE 4 Structural Engineering Understanding the Codes and Careers for Civ EXPLORE Watch the following videos: What is Structural Engineering.mp4 Structural Engineering Explained.mp4 Roles and Responsibilities of Structural Engineers.mp4 ENGAGE Structural engineering — a specialty within the field of civil engineering — focuses on the framework of structures, and on designing those structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable and secure throughout their use. In other words, structural engineers make sure that buildings don't fall down and bridges don't collapse. EXPLAIN Structural engineering — a specialty within the field of civil engineering — focuses on the framework of structures, and on designing those structures to withstand the stresses and pressures of their environment and remain safe, stable and secure throughout their use. In other words, structural engineers make sure that buildings don't fall down and bridges don't collapse. Basically, when Civil Engineers design our structures, we refer to the design of the dimensions of the buildings frame works i.e. beams, columns, walls, footings, slabs, and trusses. We design these structural members to be able to carry loads. What are these loads? We have dead loads, live loads, wind loads, earthquake loads, and moving loads. Basically, it is a Structural Engineer’s job to make sure that buildings don’t fall down. A couple of decades ago these design computations were all done manually which would definitely take a lot of time since there are separate computations for every beam, column, and slab of the whole structure Because of today’s technological advancements Structural Engineers design with the help of software that are readily available. There are several different softwares available for Structural Engineers. They are STAAD, ETABS, SAP2000, SAFE, and Prokon and many more. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES ASEP - The Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP) is the recognized organization of Structural Engineers of the Philippines. Established in 1961, ASEP has been existence for more than 50 solid years. ASEP is known for its publications like the different volumes of the National Structural code of the Philippines, the approved referral codes of the Philippine National Building Code. In ASEP’s roster of members, you will find structural engineers of renowned structural ability, reliability and professionalism. NSCP – National Structural Code of the Philippines. This is the list of codes that we as Civil Engineers in the Philippines live by. This is basically our Bible. It contains all the information we would need in order to design structures. ELABORATE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS We as Civil Engineers are directly responsible for a structure’s framework. It is considered the skeleton of a building. The skeleton itself is composed of different members each with a different function but together serves as single functioning unit. Concrete frame structures are the most common type of modern building. It usually consists of a frame or a skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members are beams and vertical ones are the columns. Concrete Buildings structures also contain slabs which are used as base, as well as roof / ceiling. Among these, the column is the most important as it carries the primary load of the building. SLABS These are the plate element and carry the loads primarily by flexure. They usually carry the vertical loads. Under the action of horizontal loads, due to a large moment of inertia, they can carry quite large wind and earthquake forces, and then transfer them to the beam. BEAMS These carry the loads from slabs and also the direct loads as masonry walls and their self- weights. The beams may be supported on the other beams or may be supported by columns forming an integral part of the frame. These are primarily the flexural members. COLUMNS These are the vertical members carrying loads from the beams and from upper columns. The loads carried may be axial or eccentric. Columns are the most important when compared with beams and slabs. This is because, if one beam fails, it‘ll be a local failure of one floor but if one column fails, it can lead to the collapse of the whole structure. FOUNDATION These are the load transmitting members. The loads from the columns and walls are transmitted to the solid ground through the foundations. SHEAR WALL These are important structural elements in high-rise buildings. Shear walls are actually very large columns because of which they appear like walls rather than columns. These take care of the horizontal loads like wind and earthquake loads. Shear walls also carry the vertical loads. It’s an important point to understand that they only work for horizontal loads in one direction, which is the axis of long dimension of wall. ELEVATOR SHAFT These are the vertical concrete boxes in which the elevators are provided to move up and down. The elevator is actually contained in its own concrete box. These shafts act as very good structural elements which help in resisting horizontal loads and also carry vertical loads. TRUSS A truss is an assembly of beams or other elements that creates a rigid structure. In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two- force members only, where the members are organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object". A "two-force member" is a structural component where force is applied to only two points. DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS This is basically what the members mentioned above carry. The types of loads acting on structures for buildings and other structures can be broadly classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and longitudinal loads. The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load and impact load. The horizontal loads comprise of wind load and earthquake load. The longitudinal loads i.e. tractive and braking forces are considered in special case of design of bridges, gantry girders etc... In a construction of building two major factors considered are safety and economy. If the loads are adjudged and taken higher then economy is affected. If economy is considered and loads are taken lesser then the safety is compromised. TYPES OF LOADS on STRUCTURES and BUILDINGS 1. DEAD LOAD The first vertical load that is considered is dead load. Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to structure throughout the life span. Dead load is primarily due to self-weight of structural members, permanent partition walls, fixed permanent equipment and weight of different materials. It majorly consists of the weight of roofs, beams, walls and column etc. which are otherwise the permanent parts of the building. 2. LIVE LOAD The second vertical load that is considered in design of a structure is imposed loads or live loads. Live loads are either movable or moving loads without any acceleration or impact. These loads are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building including weights of movable partitions or furniture etc... 3. WIND LOAD Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth. Wind load is required to be considered i structural design especially when the heath of the building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface. 4. EARTHQUAKE LOAD  Earthquake forces constitute to both vertical and horizontal forces on the building. The total vibration caused by earthquake may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular directions, usually taken as vertical and two horizontal directions. SOFTWARES USED BY STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS Once the Structural Engineers have the data of loads, they can begin designing the structure itself. Making use of the following software Extended Three-dimensional Analysis of Building Systems - The innovative and revolutionary new ETABS is the ultimate integrated software package for the structural analysis and design of buildings. Incorporating 40 years of continuous research and development, this latest ETABS offers unmatched 3D object-based modeling and visualization tools, blazingly fast linear and nonlinear analytical power, sophisticated and comprehensive design capabilities for a wide-range of materials, and insightful graphic displays, reports, and schematic drawings that allow users to quickly and easily decipher and understand analysis and design results. Structural Analysis and Design - Perform comprehensive analysis and design for any size or type of structure faster than ever before using the new STAAD.Pro CONNECT Edition. Simplify your BIM workflow by using a physical model in STAAD.Pro that is automatically converted into the analytical model for your structural analysis. Share synchronized models with confidence for multi-discipline team collaboration and, most importantly, deliver safe, cost- effective designs.  MODULE 5 Construction and Project Management Engineering EXPLORE Watch the following videos: StepByStep Construction.mp4 12 Steps of Construction.mp4 Foundation layout.mp4 Project phases.mp4 ENGAGE Construction engineering is a professional discipline that deals with the designing, planning, construction and management of infrastructures such as roads, tunnels, bridges, airports, railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects. EXPLAIN Construction and Project Management, or CPM, involves the application of technical and scientific knowledge to infrastructure construction projects. While engineering focuses on design and construction management is concerned with overseeing the actual construction, CPM often represents a blend of both disciplines, bridging design and management or project execution. Construction engineering managers may have an educational background at both undergraduate and graduate levels as well as experience in construction management techniques. Their skills may be applied widely to the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. Basically, project construction can be divided into 6 phases. 1. Conceptualization and Design 4. Construction 2. Pre-Construction 5. Testing and Commissioning 3. Procurement 6. Owner Occupancy ELABORATE As construction engineers it is basically our job to oversee construction projects from start to finish. We ensure that construction is safe, economical, and productive. PHASES OF PROJECT CONSTRUCTION 1. CONCEPTUALIZATION AND DESIGN Normally, the conception of the project starts with the client. This is where the dream begins as well as the research for the right location and the specifications/standards that should be followed. Depending on the project, the conception stage might vary. It can take anywhere from a few days to a few months or more, depending on how imminent is the need for the completion of the project. It goes without saying that construction workers usually don’t have much input during this stage, as the ball is still in the hands of the project owner. Once the project is closer to fruition, it is time to sit down and talk design. This is still a preliminary stage, which means that nothing is guaranteed at this point. Nevertheless, design is the stage where usually the bidding process begins. The team that is in charge of the design, led by an architect or an engineer, will need to make sure that each of the state regulations  and codes is met while respecting the vision of the project owner as well as ensuring that the newly built structure will be usable. There are normally four different steps within the design stage and they include programming and feasibility, schematic design, design development, and contract documents. During the programming and feasibility step, each of the objectives and goals of the project has to be outlined. Numerous decisions are made at this stage, including how large the building will be, how space will be used, and how many rooms will be needed. Once the contract documents are drawn up, everything is close to being finalized, because they contain the final drawings and specifications. These documents are used in the construction field by those placing bids to work on the project. 2. PRE-CONSTRUCTION The next stage of a construction project begins when the bidding is completed and the contractor has been chosen to do the work. As soon as the contractor is chosen, the project team is put together. Typically, a project team has the task to prepare the construction site before the work begins. As a rule, it consists of the following specialties: Contract administrator Project manager  Superintendent Field engineer Health and safety manager In close collaboration with the contractor, the project team is responsible for visiting the field in order to complete a site examination. The site examination will allow the project team to detect or predict any environmental challenges that might emerge during the building process. Soil testing is also an integral part of this step. When all information is collected, all plans and findings should be reviewed by the city authorities. This is usually a long procedure, as all concerns and opinions should be heard and addressed. 3. PROCUREMENT OF MATERIALS Now it’s time for the project team to order and obtain materials, equipment, and workforce. This stage of the project can be more or less complex and challenging depending on how big the project is, the available resources and the agreed start date. Many of the big construction companies have their own procurement departments. In such cases, it is common that the construction company will simultaneously order labourers, equipment and materials for a number of projects. This process might vary a lot in smaller projects. The typical heavy equipment used in large scale construction are as follows: BACKHOE— also called excavator — is a type of excavating equipment, or digger, consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two- part articulated arm.  ROAD ROLLER - compactor-type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations. Similar rollers are used also at landfills or in agriculture. Road rollers are frequently referred to as steamrollers, regardless of their method of propulsion CRANE A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places The typical workforce of any construction consists of the following: 1. FOREMAN or CAPATAZ – in charge of leading the workforce 2. LEADMAN – works as the foreman’s right hand 3. CARPENTERS – works on formworks 4. STEELMEN – works with reinforcing steel bars 5. MASONS – works with concreting 6. LABORERS – works on manual labor jobs 7. ELECTRICIANS – works on providing electricity to the construction site 8. PLUMBERS – in charge of plumbing fixtures 9. HEAVY EQUIPMENT OPERATORS – operates heavy machinery 10. WAREHOUSEMAN – in charge of keeping tabs on construction materials and equipment 11. WELDERS – in charge of welding 4. CONSTRUCTION Before the construction work begins, a pre-construction meeting is done to ensure that everyone is on the same page when the construction starts. This meeting normally includes information about the following topics: how to access the job site the quality control of the project how and where to store all the materials the hours that everyone will be working Each worker may be given their own schedule. It is also important to note that the schedule of each project agent might vary depending on their role. This is especially true for subcontractors who need certain parts of the job completed before they can begin their portion. It easily becomes evident that bad planning at this point can lead to serious delays and budget overruns. Once the meeting is over and there are no lingering questions, the very first step of the project can begin. The goal at this point is to have planned everything so carefully that everything goes off without a hitch. Of course, that rarely happens, as something always goes wrong during a construction project. The typical stages of construction include: 1. Site preparation – includes the clearing of unwanted obstructions in the construction site. 2. Lay out – Noting all points of importance like boundaries and location of foundation.  3. Gravel laying – Laying of gravel bed where foundation will stand. 4. Laying steel reinforcement and batter boards for concrete pouring. 5. Concrete pouring 6. Installation of reinforcing steel bars 7. Installation of formworks 8. Concrete pouring 9. Repetition of steps 6, 7, and 8 till completion. 10. Finishing 5. TESTING AND COMMISSIONING This phase includes making sure that everything works as they should. Making sure the electricity works, plumbing works, paint is applied correctly, tiles are set properly, and everything is in place for the owner. 6. OWNER OCCUPANCY Once the tests are finished, it is now ready to be occupied by the client. Now that the training is completed, the owner can take over the building. This is when the warranty period is on. In that way, the project owner can feel safe that there is enough time to examine all the different systems, equipment, and materials that have been installed. TYPICAL TERMS USED IN WIKANG FILIPINO 1. POSTE - COLUMN 10. KOSTILYAHE - CEILING JOIST 2. HALIGE - WALL 11. TABIKE - SIDING (EXTERNAL) 2. GUILILAN - GIRDER 12. PILARETE - STUD (VERTICAL) 3. SULERAS - JOIST 13. PABALAGBAG - STUD (HORIZONTAL) 4. SAHIG, SUELO - FLOORING 14. PASAMANO - WINDOW SILL 5. SEPO - GIRT 15. SUMBRERO - WINDOW HEAD d. BIGA - BEAM 16. HAMBA - WINDOW JAMB / DOOR 7. BARAKILAN - BOTTOM CHORD JAMB 8. REOSTRA - PURLIN 17. SINTURON - COLLAR PLATE 9. SENEPA - FASCIA BOARD 18. HARDINERA - STRINGER (OPEN) 19. MADRE (de escalera) - STRINGER (CLOSED) 20. BAYTANG - TREAD 21. TAKIP (SILIPAN) - RISER 22. GABAY - HANDRAIL 23. MULDURA - MOULDING 24. SIBE - EAVE 25. BOLADA - PROJECTION 26. BALANGKAS - FRAME WORK 27. KANAL - GUTTER 28. ALULOD - CONDUCTOR 29. PLANCHUELA - W. I. STRAP 30. PIERNO - BOLT 31. PLANCHA - SCAFFOLDING 32. ESTAKA - STAKE 33. KUSTURADA - PLASTERED COURSE 34. PALITADA - STUCCO OR PLASTER 35. REBOCADA - SCRATCH COAT 36. PIKETA - PICKWORK (on masonry) 37. MONYEKA - VARNISH FINISH 38. BIENTO - SPACING OF GAP 39. LARGA MASA - CONCRETE SLAB (rough) 40. ASINTADA - ALIGNMENT 41. HULOG - PLUMB LINE 42. BALDOSA - CEMENT TILE 43. LADRILYO - CEMENT BRICK 44. BATIDORA - DOOR FILLET 45. KANAL - GROOVE 46. HASPE - GOOD GRAIN 47. PLANTILYA - PATTERN / SCHEDULE 48. BISAGRA - HINGE 49. DE BANDEHA - PANELED DOOR 50. ESCOMBRO - EARTHFILL 51. LASTILYAS - MASONRY FILL 52. LIYABE - ADOBE ANCHOR 53. HINANG - SOLDER 54. ESTANYO - NICOLITE BAR 55. SUBAN, SUBUHAL - TEMPER (metal work) 56. PIE DE GALLO - DIAGONAL BRACE 57. PUNSOL - NAIL SETTER 58. POLEYA - WIRING KNOB 59. ESPOLON - CABINET HING  MODULE 6 Geotechnical Engineering EXPLORE Watch the following videos: What is Geotechnical Engineering.mp4 4 importance of Geotechnical Engineering.mp4 Geotechnical Engineering.mp4 ENGAGE Geotechnics is an engineering discipline that deals with soil and rock behaviour in an engineering perspective. It also involves assessing slope stability and the risk of landslides, rock fall and avalanches. Knowing that Geotechnical Engineering deals with soil, name Civil Engineering structures that are at one point connected to soil. 1. ________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________ 3. ________________________________________ 4. ________________________________________ 5. ________________________________________ EXPLAIN “Soil Mechanics arrived at the borderline between science and art. I use the term “art” to indicate mental processes leading to satisfactory results without the assistance of step-for-step logical reasoning…To acquire competence in the field of earthwork engineering one must live with the soil. One must love it and observe its performance not only in the laboratory but also in the field, to become familiar with those of its manifold properties that are not disclosed by boring records…” - Karl Von Terzaghi Karl von Terzaghi (October 2, 1883 – October 25, 1963) was an Austrian mechanical engineer, geotechnical engineer, and geologist known as the "Father of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering". Geotechnical Engineering has advance so much since the time of Karl Terzaghi, but we wouldn’t be here enjoying them if it weren’t for the findings by our predecessors. From a scientific perspective, geotechnical engineering largely involves defining the soil's strength and deformation properties. Clay, silt, sand, rock and snow are important materials in geotechnics. Geotechnical engineering includes specialist fields such as soil and rock mechanics, geophysics, hydrogeology and associated disciplines such as geology. Geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are a branch of civil engineering.  The specialism involves using scientific methods and principles of engineering to collect and interpret the physical properties of the ground for use in building and construction. Its practical application, e.g. foundation engineering, has come to require a scientific approach. The term geotechnics is currently used to describe both the theoretical and practical application of the discipline. Basically, every type of structure known to man is at one point connected to soil. Making Geotechnical Engineering one with paramount importance in today’s society. A few of the structures directly in contact with soil are retaining walls, foundations, and roads. ELABORATE GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles. Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering projects, and it supports structural foundations. Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of soil, such as its origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing capacity. Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces. Soils engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems. Geotechnical engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth structures. Typically, soil is classified into 4 main types. 1. Sandy Soil The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor water holding capacity, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz. 2. Silty Soil Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by moving currents, and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore, it is also used in agricultural practices to improve soil fertility. 3. Clayey Soil Clay is the smallest particle amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil has very good  water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which does not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish. 4. Loamy Soil Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it includes an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt, and it also happens to have humus. Apart from these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins. From a general perspective, “soil” is a very broad term and refers to the loose layer of earth that covers the surface of the planet. The soil is the part of the earth’s surface, which includes disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and organic materials. For soil to form from rocks, it takes an average of 500 years or more. The soil is usually formed when rocks break up into their constituent parts. When a range of different forces acts on the rocks, they break into smaller parts to form the soil. These forces also include the impact of wind, water and the reaction from salts. There are three stages of soil: 1. Solid soil 2. Soil with air in the pores 3. Soil with water in the pores Soil can be classified into three primary types based on its texture – sand, silt, and clay. However, the percentage of these can vary, resulting in more compound types of soil such as loamy sand, sandy clay, silty clay, etc OVERVIEW OF SOIL The ground on which we walk is never quite the same; it keeps on changing. Sometimes, it is made up of millions of tiny sand granules and other times; it is a hard, rocky surface. Other places have the ground covered with moss and grass. When humans came along, the landscape slowly changed with the introduction of roads and rails. EVALUATE 1. State the classifications of soil. 2. State the characteristics of sandy soil. 3. Explain the significant features of a silty soil. 4. Explain the characteristic of Clayey soil.  MODULE 7 Subsurface Explorations and Types of Foundations EXPLORE How is subsurface exploration relevant to other sub-disciplines of civil engineering, say for transportation engineering? ENGAGE For structures which transmit heavy load on the soil, up to what nature and extent of soil exploration is needed so as to provide data which will help in the selection of proper types of foundation, its location and design of foundations. EXPLAIN What is Subsurface Exploration? ▪ Investigation of the underground conditions at a site for the economical design of the substructure elements. For most major structures, adequate subsoil exploration at the construction site must be conducted. The purposes of subsoil exploration include the following: 1. Determining the nature of soil at the site and its stratification. 2. Obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for visual identification and appropriate laboratory tests. 3. Determining the depth and nature of bedrock, if and when encountered 4. Performing some in situ field tests, such as permeability tests, vane shear tests, and standard penetration tests. 5. Observing drainage conditions from and into the site. 6. Assessing any special construction problems with respect to the existing structure(s) nearby. 7. Determining the position of the water table. A soil exploration program for a given structure can be divided broadly into four phases: 1. Compilation of the existing information regarding the structure. 2. Collection of existing information for the subsoil condition. 3. Reconnaissance of the proposed construction site. 4. Detailed site investigation. Generally soil exploration should be advanced to a depth up to which the increase in pressure due to structural loading will have no damaging effect (such as settlement & shear failure) on the structure. In other words, the depth at which soil does not contribute settlement of foundation. This depth is termed as significant depth. Significant depth. METHODS OF EXPLORATION  A. Open Excavations Trial pits are applicable to all types of soils, which provide visual inspection of soil in their natural condition in either disturbed or undisturbed state. Here depth of investigation is limited to 3 to 3.5m. There are 2 ways: 1. Pits and trenches 2. Drifts and Shafts B. Boring Tests Exploratory bore holes are excavated in relatively soft soil close to ground. The location, spacing and depth depends on type, size and weight of the structure. Bore holes are generally located at: ▪ The building corners ▪ The center of the site ▪ The place at which heavily loaded columns are proposed ▪ At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum When the depth of excavation is large, vertical boring methods are adopted. Samples are extracted from bore holes and tested in laboratory. GWT is located and In situ tests are carried using bore holes. Boring Methods ▪ Auger Boring ▪ Wash Boring ▪ Percussion Boring ▪ Core Boring or Rotary Drilling C. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS Geo-physical methods are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and also when the speed of investigation is of primary importance. The major method of geo-physical investigations are: gravitational methods, magnetic methods, seismic refraction method, and electrical resistivity method. Out of these, seismic refraction method and electrical resistivity methods are the most commonly used for Civil Engineering purposes. It is a non-intrusive method of “seeing” into the ground. Geophysical methods include surface and down-hole measurement techniques which provide details about subsurface hydrogeologic and geologic conditions. These methods have also been applied to detecting contaminant plumes and locating buried waste materials. Some methods are quite site specific in their performance. FACTORS AFFECTING THE SAMPLE DISTURBANCE ▪ Area Ratio ▪ Inside clearance ▪ Outside clearance ▪ Inside wall friction ▪ Design of non-return valve ▪ Methods of applying forces ▪ Recovery ratio ELABORATE TYPES OF FOUNDATION Following are different types of foundations used in construction: 1. Shallow foundation ▪ Individual footing or isolated footing ▪ Combined footing ▪ Strip foundation ▪ Raft or mat foundation 2. Deep Foundation ▪ Pile foundation ▪ Drilled Shafts or caissons Types of Shallow Foundations a. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for a single column and also called a pad foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from the structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on the load on the column and the safe bearing capacity of soil. Rectangular isolated footing is selected when the foundation experiences moments due to the eccentricity of loads or due to horizontal forces. b. Combined Footing Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural design differs.  The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from the structure is carried by the columns. c. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings Spread footings are those whose base is wider than a typical load- bearing wall foundation. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building structure over more area and provides better stability. Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the base area of the structure. These should not be used on soils where there is any possibility of a ground flow of water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction. d. Raft or Mat Foundations Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the structure on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of all the load-bearing elements of the structure. It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for the suitability of spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is economical when one-half area of the structure is covered with individual footings and wall footings are provided.  These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above the bearing surface of the soil. The use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction. Types of Deep Foundation a. Pile Foundations Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be used. This is also used to prevent uplift of the structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces. Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface is not suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep from the ground surface. Pile foundation resists the loads from the structure by skin friction and by end bearing. The use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of foundations. b. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has an action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and/or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger. Drilled shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where the depth of hard strata below ground level is located within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet). Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deposits of soft clays and loose, water-bearing granular soils exist. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are difficult to stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.  MODULE 8 Water Resources Engineering Concepts and Structures EXPLORE From where does the water you drink come? Sure, it probably comes out of a sink faucet or drinking fountain, but where was it before that? ENGAGE Describe the differences between streams, rivers and lakes. Describe the differences between surface and groundwater. EXPLAIN Water Resources Engineering - branch of civil engineering concerned with maximizing the social and economic benefit associated with the world’s water resources while minimizing the adverse environmental impacts due to modifications to the natural environment. - deals with the principles and analysis of water resources systems such as: multi-purpose reservoir, water supply distribution system, storm water drainage, irrigation system, and agricultural drainage system. - Special topics: river and flood control, drought mitigation and water resource planning management.  - - Uses of Water (Beneficial Use) 1. for domestic purposes - drinking, washing, bathing, cooking, or other household needs, home gardens and watering of lawns or domestic animals 2. for municipal purposes - water requirements of the community 3. for irrigation – for producing agricultural crops 4. for power generation - producing electrical or mechanical power 5. for fisheries - propagation of culture of fish as a commercial enterprise 6. for livestock raising - for large herds or flocks of animals raised as a commercial enterprise 7. for industrial purposes - in factories, industrial plants and mines, including the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product 8. for recreational purposes - swimming pools, bath houses, boating, water skiing, golf courses, and other similar facilities in resorts and other places of recreation. Surface water and groundwater resources Principles of Water Resources 1. Principle of planning for water resource projects 2. Planning for prioritizing water resource projects 3. Concept of basin – wise project development 4. Demand of water within a basin 5. Structural construction for water projects 6. Concept of inter – basin water transfer project 7. Tasks for planning a water resources project Need for a scientific planning strategy 1. Gradual decrease of per capita available water on this planet and especially in our country. 2. Water being used for many purposes and the demands vary in time and space. 3. Water availability in a region – like county or state or watershed is not equally distributed. 4. The supply of water may be from rain, surface water bodies and ground water. ELABORATE Development of water resources Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a resource requires special attention. Requirement of technological/engineering intervention for development of water resources to meet the varied requirements of man or the human demand for water, which are also unevenly distributed, is hence essential. The development of water resources, though a necessity, is now pertinent to be made sustainable. The concept of sustainable development implies that development meets the needs of the present life, without compromising on the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs. Sustainable Water Utilization The quality of water is being increasingly threatened by pollutant load, which is on the rise as a consequence of rising population, urbanization, industrialization, increased use of agricultural chemicals, etc. Both the surface and ground water have gradually increased in contamination level. Technological intervention in the form of providing sewerage system for all urban conglomerates, low cost sanitation system for all rural households, water treatment plants for all industries emanating polluted water, etc. has to be made. Contamination of ground water due to over-exploitation has also emerged as a serious problem. It is difficult to restore ground water quality once the aquifer is contaminated. Ground water contamination occurs due to human interference and also natural factors. To promote human health, there is urgent need to prevent contamination of ground water and also promote and develop cost-effective techniques for purifying contaminated ground water for use in rural areas like solar stills. In summary, the development of water resources potential should be such that in doing so there should not be any degradation in the quality or quantity of the resources available at present. Thus the development should be sustainable for future. Structural tools for water resource development Dams are detention structures for storing water of streams and rivers. The water stored in the reservoir created behind the dam may be used gradually, depending on demand. Barrages are diversion structures which help to divert a portion of the stream and river for meeting demands for irrigation or hydropower. They also help to increase the level of the water slightly which may be advantageous from the point of view of increasing navigability or to provide a pond from where water may be drawn to meet domestic or industrial water demand. Canals/Tunnels are conveyance structures for transporting water over long distances for irrigation or hydropower. These structural options are used to utilize surface water to its maximum possible extent. Other structures for utilizing ground water include rainwater detentions tanks, wells and tube wells.  MODULE 9 Traffic Engineering and Management Concepts EXPLORE Have you ever noticed times when the roads are filled with cars and other times when the roads are free of vehicles? Has anyone noticed that the more cars on the road, the slower speeds your parents drive or the longer it takes for you to arrive at your destination? Has an accident or a car with a blown tire on the side of the road ever caused your parents to slow down, allowing surrounding cars to get closer? These are all descriptions of congestion, which you may have heard your parents talk about. It is simply roads full of cars, trucks and buses. The more vehicles that are on a roadway the more congested it is, and usually it leads to stopped or stop-and-go movement. Engineers like to describe congestion as an excess of vehicles on a portion of roadway at a particular time resulting in speeds that are slower than normal. Also, one roadway may be congested while another one nearby may not be. The amount, location and time of congestion are always changing. ENGAGE So, why do you think it is important to understand congestion? Well, who likes to be stuck in traffic when you can be doing something else? What are some examples? When have you noticed the roads filled with cars? (Possible examples: Mornings on the way to school, evening "rush hour" around 5 pm, etc.) What roadways are filled with lots of cars most of the time? EXPLAIN TRAFFIC ENGINEERING Phase of transportation engineering that deals with planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads , streets, and highways and their networks, terminals and relationships with other modes of transportation TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT The LTO, PNP-TMG, and MMDA are the primary agencies responsible for enforcement and apprehension of offenders o TMG - Traffic Management Group  o For PNP-RTMO’s , a personnel is dispatched on strategic choke points and major thoroughfares to conduct traffic direction and control to ensure the smooth flow of traffic o Other functions of TMG’s: - traffic accident investigation - traffic safety education through seminars and conferences LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK Laws Governing traffic safety and regulations EXECUTIVE ORDER (EO) 125 ▪ reorganized the Ministry of Transportation and Communications into a Department ▪ defined its powers and functions ▪ establishment of Land Transportation Office as the sectoral agency responsible for implementing and carrying out policies, rules, and regulations governing the land transportation system of the country Republic Act 6975 ▪ established the DILG ▪ creation of the PNP ▪ Traffic Management Group reorganized as the traffic enforcement arm of the PNP covering national roads Executive Order (EO) 202 ▪ created the LTFRB with its functions pursuant to the Public Service Act Commonwealth Act 146 (Public Service Act) ▪ Gives the LTFRB power to compel any public service provider to furnish safe, adequate, and proper service as regards the manner of furnishing the same as well as the maintenance of necessary materials and equipment RA 8750 (Seat Belts Use Act of 1999) ▪ Mandatory use of seatbelts for both drivers and front-seat passengers of public and private vehicles  ▪ Back-seat passengers in private cars are also required to wear seat belts ▪ Bans children under age 6 to sit in the front-seat of any vehicle RA 10054 (Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009) ▪ Requires motorbike drivers and riders to wear standard protective motorcycle helmets with DTI prescribed specifications ▪ Doesn’t require the proper way to wear motorcycle helmets ▪ Doesn’t cover electric motorcycle or e-bikes RA 10586 (Anti Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013 ▪ Motorist are prohibited to drive if under the influence of alcohol, drugs or other inebriating substances ▪ Enforcers are required to assess any motorist suspected to be under the influence of alcohol by checking their level of sobriety RA 10666 (Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015) ▪ Prohibits children from boarding two-wheeled vehicles running faster than 60 kph on public roads ▪ Allows children to ride as long as they can comfortably reach their feet on the foot peg, reach their arms around the driver’s waist and wear a helmet ▪ Doesn’t apply for urgent medical attention RA 10913 (Anti- Distracted Driving Act of 2016) ▪ Motorist are banned from “using mobile communications device : write, send, or read a text-based message or to make or receive calls except when done hands-free ▪ use of such devices are not allowed when vehicle is in motion or stopped at red traffic light RA 10916 (Road Speed Limiter Act of 2016) ▪ Public utility vehicles, closed vans, cargo trailers, shuttle service or tanker trucks are not allowed to ply roads without a standard limiter approved by DOTr RA 11229 (Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act) ▪ No child under 12 years of age is allowed to sit in a front seat of a motor vehicle with running engine unless the child meets the right height  requirement of at least 150 cm (4’ 11”) and is properly secured using regular seat belt ▪ Requires the use of child restrained system RA 11229 (Child Safety in Motor Vehicles Act) ▪ Signed 22Feb2019 ▪ Guarantee safety and welfare of infants and children and prevent traffic – related deaths and injuries ▪ Repeals Sec. 5 of RA 8750 ▪ Use of child restraint system in public utility vehicles are still under study by the DOTr for recommendations ELABORATE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT ▪ Activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers and consumers of transportation service Two (2) distinct types of traffic management 1. traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to regulate and control traffic 2. advanced technology through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) TRAFFIC REGULATIONS ❑ must cover all aspects of the control of both vehicle and driver ❑ must be reasonable and effective ❑ dependent upon the laws of the states and local governments Effective Traffic Regulation ✔ must be rational ✔ must be developed progressively ✔ must be in conjunction with control devices, planning, and policies Three Elements of the Road System For ROADS and VEHICLES ✔ subject to constant change and improvement ✔ may be considered inflexible over time ✔ most effective control for number of vehicle is vehicle registration For DRIVERS ✔ licensing is the most effective way of controlling the number of drivers worldwide TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES ❑ are means to advised road uses of detailed requirements or conditions affecting road use ❑ Given at specific places and times in order for proper actions to be taken and to delay or avoid accident Three Distinct Functional Groups a. Regulatory devices - have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon the actions of the road user b. Warning devices - used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway conditions or unusual traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic c. Guiding devices - employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and other pertinent traffic TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES Four (4) Elementary Requirements ▪ every traffic control device must be able to meet the following requirements (FHWA 1988) a. should compel attention b. should convey a simple clear meaning at a glance c. should allow adequate time for easy response  d. should command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended **MUST BE MET IN LOGICAL SEQUENCE TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS ▪ are employed more frequently than any other devices ▪ normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc ▪ specialized types of traffic signs - messages are in contrast with the color and brightness of the pavement or other background CLASSIFICATIONS according to USE a. Regulatory: ▪ intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or prohibitions with which they must comply b. Warning: ▪ intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform them of its nature c. Informative: ▪ intended to guide users while they are traveling ELEMENTS OF DESIGN a. SHAPE b. COLOR c. SIZE a. minimum dimensions depend upon the intended applications b. Larger sizes : at wider roadways and on high speed highway c. There are four sizes based on the speed of the facility for regulatory signs ▪ A for urban low-speed road ▪ B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph ▪ C for high-speed rural highways ▪ D for expressways d. ILLUMINATION & REFLECTORIZATION a. intended to convey messages during both daytime and night time b. At night time, achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs e. HEIGHT OF SIGNS ▪ mounted approximately at right angles to the direction, and facing the traffic ▪ generally placed on the right side of the roadway ▪ overhead signs are often necessary for wider roads ▪ For roads with median, may be placed on both sides ▪ may also be placed on channelized islands