MIDTERM FIELD METHODS PDF

COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01...

COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 89 of 164 MODULE 5: RESEARCH REPORTS – ORGANIZATION AND WRITING This module will discuss some general consideration in organizing and writing research reports using an acceptable scientific format. It discusses the expected contents in each part of a research paper. ENGAGE: Have you read a research journal? What are your thoughts about reading research journals? The Total Picture Research is not just a matter of collecting and analyzing information. The ultimate aim is to develop research skills to a professional level. As such, it is important to promote the understanding of the subject matter by developing a concept or a theory that informs us about psychological processes. Professional researchers publish their research in research journals, of which there are many in psychology. The research report describes the role that a particular study plays in this process. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) recommends how a research paper should be written and structured for publication in the journals published by the association. Many other psychological journals stipulate that the APA’s suggestions should be followed. You can use the APA Publication Manual as a guide in writing your research report. The latest version is APA 7, released in 2019 and you can access through https://owl.purdue.edu>apa_style Here, your aim is to write clearly and concisely about your research topic so that the reader can easily understand the purpose and results of your research. A psychological research report is typically made up of three main divisions: (1) preliminary material, (2) body and (3) supplementary material. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.89  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 90 of 164 EXPLAIN: Different sections of a research report Each of the sections contains a different kind of content. When drafting your report, it is less demanding to start with the body, and then the supplementary material. The preliminary material comes last as most of the information included in this section will be coming from the body of our report. Drafting the Body of Your Report  Introduction: This is the section where you discuss what you researched and why. The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper. Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions: What was I studying? Why was this topic important to investigate? What did we know about this topic before I did this study? How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? There are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research. Note: A literature review is sometimes included in the introduction, it mentions other relevant research in this area. Background information may include a brief review of the literature already available on the topic so that you are able to ‘place’ your Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.90  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 91 of 164 research in the field. If asked to do a separate literature review, you must carefully structure your findings. It may be useful to do a chronological format where you discuss from the earliest to the latest research, placing your research appropriately in the chronology. Alternately, you could write in a thematic way, outlining the various themes that you discovered in the research regarding the topic. Again, you will need to state where your research fits.  Methodology: This section explains what you did and how you did it. This consists of the following sections at a minimum:  Participants  Materials, measures or apparatus  Design and procedure - It must be clearly written so that it would be easy for another researcher to duplicate your research if they wished to. - It is usually written in a 'passive' voice (e.g. the participants were asked to fill in the questionnaire attached in Appendix 1) rather than an 'active' voice (e.g. I asked the participants to fill in the questionnaire attached in Appendix 1). - Clearly reference any material you have used from other sources. Clearly label and number any diagrams, charts, and graphs. Ensure that they are relevant to the research and add substance to the text rather than just duplicating what you have said. You do not include or discuss the results here.  Results: This is where you indicate what you found in your research. This includes statistical analyses, tables and diagrams. You give the results of your research, but do not interpret them.  Discussion: This goes into a detailed explanation and relevance of the findings presented under results. This section also shows how it fits with other research in the area. It will relate back to your literature review and your introductory thesis statement.  Conclusion: A summary of results and findings. Usually contained within the discussion section and not a separate subheading, though sometimes conclusions are provided in a separate section. You should not include any new material in this Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 91  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 92 of 164 section. Sometimes you could indicate some areas where your research has limits or where further research would be useful. - Recommendations are suggestions about what needs to be done as a result of your findings and is sometimes included in the conclusion. This is a summary of the most significant results/findings. Recommendations are usually listed in order of priority. Drafting the Supplementary Material This section includes the following:  References or Bibliography - This includes all references used in your report or referred to for background information. Usually starting on a new page, this is an alphabetical (then chronological if necessary) list of the sources that one has cited in the body of the text. The Publication Manual states that when there are between three and five authors, all the authors should be listed the first time they are mentioned. Subsequently, only the first author need be mentioned followed by ‘et al.’. This rule is followed apart from one reference which is referred to only once and is presented as ‘Pizzagalli et al.’.  Appendices - These are any additional material or extra information to the report. Usually it contains material which is helpful but would be confusing to incorporate in the main body of the text. If you include appendices they must be referred to in the body of the report and must have a clear purpose for being included. Each appendix must be named and numbered. Drafting the Preliminary Material This includes the following:  Title page: This is the first page and contains the title, the author and author details such as their address, e-mail address, telephone and fax number. For a student report, this will be replaced with details such as student ID number, degree program name and module name.  Abstract: This is the second page of the report and you may use the subheading ‘Abstract’ for clarity. The abstract is a detailed summary of the contents of the report. The Abstract should be within the 150–250-word limit. The structure of Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.92  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 93 of 164 abstracts vary, one structure uses four sub headings: Purpose, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Another structure uses Introduction, Methods, Results, Analysis, Discussion.  Title of Report – A concise heading that is clear and indicates exactly what you are researching. The title is expressed as a sentence which describes the main finding. The recommended number of words should not be more than 12. The title should be able to indicate the main variables of the study. The title is written in upper and lower case with the first letter of the major words capitalized (or in upper case). - Note that a Table of Contents can be useful to guide your readers, but is not always required. If you have to include this section, list all sections, sub headings, tables, graphs, appendices and give page numbers for each. ELABORATE: There’s More: On Polishing Your Report The final step is checking your report to ensure you have followed all of the guidelines as outlined in your course information. Use the following to guide you.  Short, simple sentences of 8 to 10 words are best. Paragraphs should be of moderate length and avoid lists of one-sentence paragraphs as they are unreadable. Each paragraph should be longer than a single sentence but not longer than a doublespaced page. Subheadings help make your writing organized and coherent. Make sure that your sentences are in a correct and logical order. The same is true for your paragraphing.  The APA style requires margin as being at least 1 inch (2.54 cm) wide. The font style and font size are not presented in the checklist, although one font style recommended is Times New Roman and the preferred font size as being 12-point.  It is normally inappropriate to use personal pronouns such as ‘I’ and ‘we’ in a research report. However, care needs to be taken, as this can lead to lengthy passive sentences. In an effort to avoid ‘We gave the participants a questionnaire to complete’, the result can be the following passive sentence: ‘Participants were given a questionnaire to complete.’ It would be better to use a more active sentence structure such as ‘Participants completed a questionnaire.’ Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.93  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 94 of 164  The dominant tense in the research report is the past tense. This is because the bulk of the report describes completed activities in the past (for example, ‘The questionnaire measured two different components of loneliness.’). That is, the activities completed by the researcher in the process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting the data took place in the past and are no longer ongoing. Other tenses are, however, sometimes used. The present tense is often used to describe the current beliefs of researchers (for example, ‘It is generally considered that loneliness consists of two major components...’). Put this idea into the past tense and the implications are clearly different (for example, ‘It was generally considered that loneliness consists of two major components...’). The future tense is also used sometimes (for example, ‘Clarification of the reasons for the relationship between loneliness and lack of social support will help clinicians plan treatment strategies.  Remember that the tables and diagrams included in the report need to communicate as clearly and effectively as the text. Some readers will focus on tables and diagrams before reading the text, since these give a quick overview of what the research and the research findings are about. Too many tables and diagrams are not helpful and every table and diagram should be made as clear as possible by using headings and clear labels.  Avoid racist and sexist language, and other demeaning and otherwise offensive language about minority groups. The inclusion of this in a professional research report may result in the rejection of the article or substantial revision to eliminate such material. Numbers are expressed as 27, 35, 42, etc., in most of the text except where they occur as the first words of the sentence or are less than 10. In this case, we would write ‘Twenty­seven airline pilots and 35 cabin crew completed the alcoholism scale.’  It is a virtue to keep the report reasonably compact. Do not waffle or put in material simply because you have it available. It is not desirable to exceed word limits, so sometimes material has to be omitted. It is not uncommon to find that excess length can be trimmed simply by judicious editing of the text. A quarter or even a third of words can be edited out if necessary. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.94  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 95 of 164  Do not include quotations from other authors except in those cases where it is undesirable to omit them. This is particularly the case when one wishes to dispute what a previous writer has written. In this instance, only by quoting the origin can its nuances be communicated.  Generally, introductions are the longest section of a research report. Some authorities suggest about a third of the available space should be devoted to the introduction. Of course, adjustments have to be made according to circumstances. Research which collects data on numerous variables may need more space devoted to the results section.  A rule-of-thumb is to present the results of calculations to no more than two decimal places. There is a danger of spuriously implying a greater degree of accuracy than psychological data usually possess. Whatever you do, be consistent. You need to understand how to round to two decimals. Basically, if the original number ends with a figure of 5 or above then we round up, otherwise we round down. So 21.4551 gives 21.46 rounded, whereas 21.4549 gives 21.45 rounded.  Psychological terms may not have a standard definition which is accepted by all researchers. Consequently, you may find it necessary to define how you are using terms in your report. Always remember that definitions in psychology are rarely definitive and they are often problematic in themselves.  Regarding layout, normally the recommendation is to double-space your work and word-process it. However, check local requirements on this. Leave wide margins for comments. Use underlining or bold for headings and subheadings. The underlying assumption behind this is that the report is being reviewed by another person. A report that will not be commented upon might not require double spacing. Check the local rules where you are studying. *from Howitt and Cramer and APA writing style version 7 Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.95  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 96 of 164 EXPLORE AND EVALUATE: Writing excerpts of an RRL (Review of Related Literature – Worksheet C) 1) Look for 6 journals related to a single topic/phenomenon of interest (related to Psychology) 2) Summarize by chart these materials in table form: Author/s, Year Objective or Relevant information Results/Finding Hypotheses tested on methodology Journal 1 Journal 2 Journal 3 Journal 4 Journal 5 Journal 6 7) Using these materials, come up with a draft that may be appropriate for an RRL (Review of Related Literature). You should NOT EXCEED 300 words 8) Make sure to use the proper format for in-text citation and references (APA 7). Take note, a manuscript APA 7 is double-spaced. 9) You are to accomplish this in a word document (write up, including references) 10) Attach your summary chart Note: For OBL students – you will work in dyads/triads For CBL students – This assignment is modified:  Chart 3 journals  Write up should NOT EXCEED 200 words. References: Howitt, D., & Cramer, D. (2014). Introduction to research methods in psychology (4th Ed). Pearson Education. Purdue University. APA Format. https://owl.purdue.edu>apa_style Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.96  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 97 of 164 MODULE 6: OBSERVATIONAL METHODS In this module, we will cover most methods that are generally classed as observation. You will notice that in most research studies, information is mostly derived through some form of observation. This module will look into techniques of observation that mostly involve direct records of participant behavior as it occurs, rather than methods of requesting information (interview, questionnaire) or of manipulation (experiment) ENGAGE (Activity 3) Suppose you were interested in studying aggression among children. You will probably go to a children’s playground and observe and record how children play and interact with others. Try to make a list of the events that you would want to record and try to define each so that an observer could go and record these events reliably for you. ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________ Before we proceed, let us distinguish different techniques and approaches to observational studies. ❖ Observational technique and design ❖ Participant observation and nonparticipant observation ❖ Disclosed and undisclosed observations ❖ Structured and non-structured observations ❖ Controlled observation and naturalistic observation Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 97  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 98 of 164 There are certain issues that have been raised in the use of observational methods in research: ❖ the relative strengths and weaknesses of the various techniques and approaches, ❖ the objections of some researchers to structure and control in observational studies, ❖ the reliability of observations ❖ the degrees of participation and specific ethical issues WHAT IS OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH? Observational research refers to several types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. The goal of observational research is to describe a variable or set of variables. More generally, the goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting. Observational research is non-experimental because nothing is manipulated or controlled, and as such we cannot arrive at causal conclusions using this approach. The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in nature but they may also be quantitative or both (mixed-methods). EXPLAIN: THE HOW OF OBSERVATION Participant and non-participant observation: A participant observer is to some extent a part of the group of individuals being observed, whereas a non-participant observer observes from a distance and ideally has no effect on the behavior being observed. There is also a dimension of disclosure in that researchers may or may not inform the people studied that they are being observed and the information given can be partial or can involve a certain amount of deception in order to obtain more genuine behavior or at least behavior that is not affected by knowledge of the research hypothesis. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.98  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 99 of 164 Structured (or ‘systematic’) observation: The main features of a structured or systematic approach to observation are:  defining behavior categories to be recorded prior to commencing the main observational sessions;  sampling of behavior in a consistent manner using one of the sampling devices;  training of observers in the use of a coding system and to a good level of agreement prior to main data-gathering sessions Data Gathering Devices: Records of behavior can be made using any or a mixture of the following devices:  visual recording  still camera  audio (to record spoken observations)  hand-written notes, ratings or coding ‘on the spot’ using a checklist or grid Visual recording has the advantages that behavior can be analyzed (‘rated’ or ‘coded’) after the event at the researcher’s own pace, and repeated viewing is possible. Any of the methods above might be used discreetly such that the participant is either completely unaware of the recording process (in which case ethical issues arise) or at least unable to see or hear the equipment during the observation session. This can be achieved with the use of screens or ‘one-way’ mirrors, which act as a mirror for the participant but a window for observers or camera. ELABORATE Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.99  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 100 of 164 Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of observational designs _____________________________________________________________________________________ Advantages Disadvantages Produces immediate data on real behavior People’s behavior can be affected by the awareness rather than possibly distorted self-reports of being observed; reactivity effects. Can gather data on behavior which is not Can be very time-consuming (especially participant amenable to experimentation, e.g., real observation) compared with the experiment or playground aggression; many kinds of infant questionnaire study. behavior. If conducted in field settings can gather As with other non-experimental studies it may not data on completely genuine behavior be possible to identify cause and effect. Children unconstrained by laboratory or other who watch more violent TV programs may display artificial settings. greater playground aggression but this aggression could be a cause of the program selection not its result. Coding behavior: Observers need to code behavior either as it occurs or as they view a visual recording.  Event coding (or event sampling) is driven by the occurrence of events or changes of event. If something changes the observer records the new event. Table 2 shows an example of event coding. Table 2. Observation sheet for event coding Solo activity Playing with others Inactive Reading Playing Looking Different Same Coopera Directed along on activity activity- tive by adult parallel activity 1 4 2 3 5  Interval coding is driven by time – the observer records what happens during set time intervals. If these intervals are not consecutive, then the procedure is known as time sampling. An observer might, for instance, be asked to record behavior during five-minute intervals interspersed with ten-minute ‘off’ intervals for elaborating what happened in the observation interval. Alternatively, time Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.100  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 101 of 164 intervals might be selected at random in order to ensure a representative picture of behavior during a whole day. EXPLORE: MORE ON PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION One of the primary benefits of participant observation is that the researcher is in a much better position to understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people they are studying when they are apart of the social group. The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the behavior of the people being observed. While this is also a concern with naturalistic observation when researchers because active members of the social group they are studying, additional concerns arise that they may change the social dynamics and/or influence the behavior of the people they are studying. Similarly, if the researcher acts as a participant observer there can be concerns with biases resulting from developing relationships with the participants. Concretely, the researcher may become less objective resulting in more experimenter bias. Degrees of participation There can be various ways to which an observer can participate in the group being studied. Here are a few possible ways.  Full participant: The true research role is hidden (‘undisclosed’) and the observer is taken as an authentic member of the group. In this case private information may well be disclosed that would not be given to a known researcher.  Participant as observer: The participant’s observational role is not hidden but ‘kept under wraps’. It is not seen to be the main reason for the participant’s presence. Members relate to the participant mainly through roles and activities central to the group.  Observer as participant: Here, the observer role is uppermost and members of the group accept the observer in their midst as researcher. If valued, the researcher may be given quite intimate information, but they may be constrained in reporting it if such information is offered in confidence.  Full observer: This is the role of uninvolved observer. This has been discussed as ‘non-participant observation’. Disclosed participant observation: Participant observation studies are usually conducted on the basis that participants know that someone with whom they are in close and Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.101  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 102 of 164 possibly professional contact is also making observations as part of an ongoing research project. It is important then to develop skills to maintain oneself as a member of an academic community while opening oneself up to the possibilities that would follow from belonging to the community that one wants to study. Strengths of participant observation  Flexibility: A pre-set structure for observation, interview or survey questionnaire imposes the researcher’s framework, assumptions and priorities on those who are to be studied. What is relevant in the target group’s social world has already been decided. Participant observation is flexible. What is to be covered in the study is not set in stone at the outset. Indeed, the extent to which the observer will participate may not be the same throughout the study.  Relationship with observed group: Specific groups in the local environment, such as gangs or strongly identifying cultural groups, are likely to see an established researcher as an authority figure and, consequently, to be suspicious. You may recall in your Filipino Psychology that pakikipagkapwa helps to establish trust and to dissipate suspicions. Participant observation may sometimes be the only way to discover what truly makes such groups ‘tick’, and to find out which expressed attitudes stem from prior and perhaps deeper values and beliefs. Difficulties with participant observation  The presence of a participant observer must change group behavior to some degree, if only marginally, since, unless the researcher remains mute and passive (and therefore doesn’t participate), interactions must occur that wouldn’t have occurred otherwise.  The participant researcher can’t usually make notes at the time of observation. Most have to rely on diary-keeping after the day’s events (or by taking on a role that permits unobtrusive notetaking). As such, participant observers will not fully remember the situation and distortion is likely. Also, since the researcher is the only observer present, and since events observed are unique, there is no opportunity to verify results with a second observer. Conclusions can only be loosely generalized to similar situations and groups. Table 3. Advantages and disadvantages of controlled, naturalistic and participant observation designs. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.102  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 103 of 164 Advantages Disadvantages Controlled Compared with many experiments, Often conducted in an artificial behavior studied can be more flexible environment which might seriously and continuous. distort natural behavior patterns. If used in an experiment, then Participants might guess research aim cause–effect relationships are less and can act in a socially desirable ambiguous than in non-experimental settings. manner. Less intrusion from extraneous Reactive context. variables than in natural settings. Naturalistic Reactivity not a problem where Greater ambiguity from extraneous participants are unaware of being in variables and unpredictable behavior research context and, if so, genuine gives greater potential for observer bias behavior produced. than in more structured/laboratory studies. Even if target is aware of being observed, Extraneous variables poorly controlled natural setting ensures that behavior and pose much greater threats to observed is usually more representative validity than in the laboratory. than it could be in the laboratory. An important and useful approach where: Difficulty of remaining undiscovered by intervention is unethical (e.g., targets. unacceptable experimentation on Replication may be more difficult. children or animals); Cannot employ the sophisticated co-operation from targets is unlikely; equipment used to make quality the full social context for behavior recordings in the laboratory (though is required. new technology has greatly improved things). Participant Behavior is usually genuine and natural, Researcher may have to rely on unless participants are aware of memory for data collection. researcher’s presence and aims. Meanings and context of participants’ Replication often more difficult than in behavior more readily available than in structured approaches, but this may be non-participative studies. Irrelevant. Trust and informality give information Problem of ‘blowing cover’. and insights unavailable in other methods. Public checks on data difficult. Researcher’s interactions with participants may alter normal relations. Source: Coolican 2017 Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.103  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 104 of 164 Indirect observation Archives: There are events that are so unpredictable and so researchers use observed social statistics as data. The examination of archives, statistics, and other records such as speeches, letters, or even tweets, provides yet another window into field research in psychology. Archives that are examined can be collected at any time and from many sources, this technique is especially flexible and often involves less expenditure of time and other resources during data collection. Verbal protocols: These are the recorded product of asking participants to talk or think aloud during an activity. The method is closely linked with the practice of knowledge elicitation. Knowledge elicitation is information derived from the verbal protocols of experts. EVALUATE (LAB ACTIVITY 4): DESIGNING OBSERVATIONS Reference: Coolican, H. (2017). Research methods and statistics in psychology. Psychology Press. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.104  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 105 of 164 LABORATORY EXERCISE 4 DESIGNING OBSERVATIONS Date: _______________________________________ Name/s: ______________________________________ Section: ______________ Design two (2) studies using the following observation method Study 1 (Naturalistic Observation) Hypothesis being tested: _________________________________________________________________ Procedures: c) What are the variables under investigation? Describe how these are defined conceptually and operationally in your design. d) Describe in detail your method - the exact method of data gathering is described, including the location, sample selection, data collection method and equipment used and other pertinent information on this method. Study 2 (Participant Observation) Hypothesis being tested: _________________________________________________________________ Procedures: c) What are the variables under investigation? Describe how these are defined conceptually and operationally in your design. d) Describe in detail your method - the exact method of data gathering is described, including the location, sample selection, data collection method and equipment used and other pertinent information on this method. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.105  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 106 of 164 MODULE 7: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS This module will focus on the different quantitative research methods commonly used in Psychology researches. The methods are described according to its common procedures, along with issues that may affect the validity of research findings. ENGAGE: Sharpening your Foresight: With your research agenda in mind,  How do you plan to execute your research?  How will you get your participants?  Do you have the time to execute the study?  Do you have the funding for it? UNIT 1: EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES: BASIC AND ADVANCED  the experimental design is the general structure of the experiment  the experimental design is based on the number of independent variables, the number of dependent variables, and whether the same or different participants will undergo the different conditions A. Simple Experimental Design  Simple Experimental Designs are called simple as they involve one independent variable and one dependent variable. A.1. Independent Samples Design  As the name suggests, the sample that undergoes the different conditions are independent from each other. One set of the participants is subjected to the experimental condition while the other group, a group that is different from them (independent from them) participates in the control condition. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.106  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 107 of 164  From your Psychological Statistics class, this is known as an UNCORRELATED SAMPLE or a BETWEEN-SUBJECTS DESIGN  Here is an example of a study that employs an Independent Samples Design: o Suppose you wanted to replicate Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study on how language use can influence eyewitness memory and you decided to conduct the experiment to college students. They were all required to watch a clip of a vehicular accident. Afterwards, you divided them into two groups: one group was asked: “how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”. Another group was asked the same question except the verb “smashed into” was changed to “hit”. Here we can see two distinct independent groups: the “smashed into” group and the “hit” group. A.2. Repeated Measures Design  Repeated measures involve having the same set of participants undergo both experimental and control condition. This design is called repeated measures because the same measure is repeated on each participant but under the different conditions of the independent variable.  This is also known as having a CORRELATED SAMPLE or a DEPENDENT SAMPLE. This design is also called a WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN. o Suppose that you wanted to study whether cursing and swearing can help reduce pain (Stephens, Atkins, & Kingston, 2009). You decided to gather 20 participants and asked them to dip their hands into icy water and keep it there as long as pain would allow. In one condition, the participants repeated the curse and swear words that they were familiar with, In another condition, the same participants were asked to dip their hands into the same icy water but saying neutral words. This is a repeated measures design because the same participants went under both the ‘curse-swear words’ condition and the ‘neutral word’ condition. A.3. Matched Pairs Design  This design uses a separate group for each condition, but each individual in one group is matched one-to-one with an individual in every other group. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.107  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 108 of 164  Matching is done so that the matched individuals are equivalent with respect to a variable that the researcher considers to be relevant to the study.  The goal of matched-design is to combine the advantages of the independent samples design and the repeated measures design.  EXAMPLE: o An Educational Psychologists wants to compare varying teaching methods in mathematics. The researcher may give a math test to a large sample, then one scores are available, the individuals in the sample gets to be matched based on their same scores. If Student A matches the same score with Student B, they can be the matched-pairs: with Student A undergoing Math Method A, while Student B undergoes Math Method B A.4. Single Participant and Small n Design  Reflective of the name of the design, this involves a single participant or a small sample size, respectively. From the nature of the sample, it can be discerned that results from these sample sizes cannot be generalized.  This is useful when a few participants available or the sample requires a specialized training or task considering that a large sample of having specific traits is not possible.  EXAMPLE: o Conducting a research about the cognitive skills of a feral child. o Investigating the motivational factors of astronauts who are about to go to space in a month. Comparing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Simple Experimental Deisgns (Coolican, 2017) Design Advantages Disadvantages Remedy (if any) Independent Can use exactly Participant Ensure equality of Samples the same stimulus variables cannot number be controlled for Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.108  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 109 of 164 lists, etc. in each Random allocation condition; of participants to conditions Participants can’t guess aim of research No need to wait for participants to forget first condition Repeated Participants acts as Need different but Counterbalance or Measures own control so equivalent randomize participant effects stimulus/conditions conditions have little effect. May not be able to Leave long time More economical conduct second gap between as the same condition conditions participants are immediately involved in both Ensure conditions studies Participants are are equal aware of second condition and may guess aim Matched Pairs No wait for Difficult to find Randomly allocate participants to perfect matches, pairs to the forget first condition thus time conditions consuming Participant variables may be evident Single Participant or Useful when a Difficult to find Treat participants Small N special replacement if nicely! characteristic is original participant looked into withdraws B. Advanced Experimental Designs Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.109  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 110 of 164  An advanced form of experimental design is called a Factorial Design and involves more than one variable to be manipulated. o The simplest factorial design has only two factors (two independent variables) and is usually called a two-factor experiment. Results of a two- factor experiment gives us two results: a MAIN EFFECT and an INTERACTION EFFECT. o A main effect is how a single independent variable affects the dependent variable. Here is an example of how a main effect is observed in a two- factor experiment:  Suppose that you want to measure the effect of talking or playing music to plant growth.  Your two independent variable have two groups each. Let’s say the IV1 is ’Talking’ which has two groups: ‘With Talking' and ‘Without Talking’; IV2 would be ‘Music' which also has two groups: ‘With Music’ and ‘Without Music’.  The Main Effects looks into:  1. The effect of talking/no talking to plant growth  2. The effect of having music/no music to plant growth o Interaction Effects looks into the effect of one independent variable as it changes across through the different level of another independent variable.  From our example, suppose that music may help a plant that has not been spoken into grow or music may have not any effect to a plant that has been spoken to  The effect of one independent variable (music) might change at different levels of the other (with talking or without talking): An interaction between two independent variables.  The number of possible interactions therefore are dependent on the number of independent variables  Factorial Designs could also be classified according to the nature of their sample as in the Simple Experimental Designs: they could be Between-Subjects (Independent Factorial Designs) or Within-Subjects Factorial Design (Dependent Factorial Designs)  If you will recall in your Psychological Statistics and Experimental Psychology, Factorial Designs employ statistical methods such as ANOVA: Two Factor With Replication and ANOVA: Two Factor Without Replication Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.110  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 111 of 164 C. Non-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs  Like true experiments, non-experimental and quasi-experimental designs involves a comparison of two groups: however, these two groups are not manipulated as compared to experiments where manipulation of variables are evident. In Non- experimental and quasi-experimental designs, the differences that are compared are already pre-existing.  These non-manipulated variables are usually the characteristics of the participants (e.g. males vs females) or a time variable (e.g. before testing vs after testing) Quasi-Experiment Design  This is used to investigate differences in preexisting groups of subjects  group differences on some variable may be explored or different treatments given to preexisting groups may be compared  Quasi-experimental designs may be classified into five (Myers & Hansen, 2012: Type Purpose Example Ex post facto ‘after the fact’; In a study of grief and Explore characteristics, loss, you cannot behaviors or effects of ‘manipulate’ the loss of naturally occurring events in someone so you gather preexisting groups of those who already subjects experienced loss and those who haven’t. Non-equivalent groups Compares the effects of In studying productivity different conditions on and lighting conditions at preexisting groups of work, Company A subjects installed fluorescent bulbs while Company B installed incandescent bulbs: comparing their productivity under lighting conditions may be ‘not equivalent’ due to multiple other factors (e.g. different work attitudes between Company A and B; Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.111  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 112 of 164 different nature of job, etc.) Longitudinal Investigates changes across Looking into how time by comparing groups different the behaviors of of subjects at different a first born child when a points in time second child is born: this is longitudinal since it would take time to wait for the second child to be born Cross-sectional Investigates changes across Comparing how time by comparing groups Generation X vs of subjects already at Generation Y raise their different stages at a single families BUT at the same point in time time (administering a questionnaire for Cohort example) Studies/Generational Studies Pretest/Posttest Explore the effects of an Looking into the event (or treatment) by effectiveness of anti- comparing behavior before depressant drugs: at first, and after the event (or people living with treatment) depression were assessed before taking the drug (pretest) and after a week of taking the anti- depressant, they were assessed again if the drug affects their well- being (posttest) Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.112  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 113 of 164 UNIT 2: Non-Manipulation Studies Non-manipulation studies – This is a most accurate and generic term to describe researches that do not involve the deliberate manipulation of variables. This include ‘correlational study’ ‘survey study’ ‘observational study’ and ‘non-experiment.’ Non-experimental methods investigate variables that exist among people irrespective of any researcher intervention, often by correlation of variables or by the investigation of existing group differences. In these studies no independent variable is manipulated. Why use non-manipulation studies? (Howitt & Cramer, 2014, p 239) ⮚ In much research, it is not possible to manipulate variables ⮚ To establish that there is an association before carrying out an experiment to further examine this ⮚ You may wish to understand what the strength of the real-life relationship is between two variables ⮚ To determine what variables might potentially the most important influences on other variables ⮚ You might wish to predict values of one variable from another, e.g. when making selection choices ⮚ Developing explanatory models in real life prior to testing aspects of the model in the laboratory ⮚ You might wish to understand the structural features of things such as intelligence ⮚ You may wish to study how something changes over time ⮚ You may wish to understand the temporal direction of associations – what changes come before other changes Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.113  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 114 of 164 EXPLORE (Activity 4) Enumerate several reasons why some variables can/may NOT be manipulated (You may add space if needed): ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ A. CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH OR CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH (Sources: Howitt & Cramer, 2014: Coolican 2017: Morling, 2018) Cross-sectional designs are typical of most non-experimental psychological research. In cross-sectional designs, the same variable is measured on only one occasion for each participant. The most basic design for a cross-sectional study involves just two variables. These variables may both be scores, or may both be nominal categories, or there may be a mixture of nominal and score variables. For example, we could examine the relationship between gender and a diagnosis of depression. In this case both variables would consist of two binary values – male versus female, diagnosed as depressed versus not diagnosed as depressed. This design provides very limited information. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.114  COURSE LEARNING PACKETS TEMPLATE Document Code FM-STL-013 Saint Louis University Revision No. 01 School of Teacher Education and Liberal Arts Effectivity June 07, 2021 Page 115 of 164 EXPLAIN HOW DO RESEARCHERS TYPICALLY DO CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGNS? For cross-sectional studies, think in terms of a minimum of three variables but there are advantages to studying more variables at one time of measure. As a researcher, we would opt to know more so most studies would go beyond just two variables. BIVARIATE CORRELATIONS (Morling, 2018) A bivariate correlation, or bivariate association, is an association that involves exactly two variables. To investigate associations, researchers need to measure the first variable and the second variable—in the same group of people. Then they use graphs and simple statistics to describe the type of relationship the variables have with each other. Some examples of conducted Bivariate studies and their findings: Author/s Variable 1 Variable 2 Finding Measure Measure Mehl et al., 2010 ‘level of deep talk’ -the association Subjective well- measured by having Those with deeper between meaningful, being scale and participants wear an conversations had substantive a measure of electronically higher well-being conversations (V1) overall happiness activated recorder