Introduction to Land Use Planning PDF

INTRODUCTION TO LAND USE PLANNING Land use planning presents a development approach that contributes to: Concept of Land ∙ the prevention of land use confl...

INTRODUCTION TO LAND USE PLANNING Land use planning presents a development approach that contributes to: Concept of Land ∙ the prevention of land use conflicts ∙ Land as wealth ∙ the adaptation of land uses to physical and ecological conditions ∙ Land as commodity ∙ the lasting protection of land as a natural resource ∙ Land as scarce resources ∙ the lasting productive use of land ∙ Land as scarce community resources ∙ a balanced use that fulfils all social, ecological and economic requirements Land Use – refers to the manner of utilization of land, including its allocation, development and “Land use planning creates the preconditions required to achieve a type of land use that is management environmentally sustainable, socially just and desirable and economically sound. It thereby activates social processes of decision making and consensus building concerning the utilization and protection Land Use Planning of private, communal or public areas” “Land use planning in the context of development cooperation is an iterative process based on the Objectives dialogue amongst all stakeholders aiming to define sustainable land uses in rural areas. It also implies ∙ To promote efficient utilization, acquisition and disposition of land ensure the highest and the initiation and monitoring of measures to realize the agreed land uses” (Deutsche Gesellschaft für best use of land Technische Zusammenarbeit) ∙ To direct, harmonize and influence discussions and activities of the private and public sectors relative to the use and management of land “Land use planning is a systematic and iterative procedure carried out in order to create an enabling ∙ To reconcile land use conflicts and proposals between and among individuals, private and environment for sustainable development of land resources which meets people’s needs and government entities relative to the present and future need for land demands. It assesses the physical, socio-economic, institutional and legal potentials and constraints ∙ To promote desirable patterns of land uses in order to prevent wasteful development and with respect to optimal and sustainable use of land resources, and empowers people to make decisions minimize the cost of public infrastructure and utilities and other social services about how to allocate those resources” (Food and Agriculture Organization/UN Environment ∙ To conserve areas of ecological, aesthetic, historical and cultural significance Programme 1999 Principle of Land Use Planning Land use planning is one of the tools that can help to meet them as it focuses on negotiating future land ∙ Land use planning aims at sustainability balancing social, economic, and environmental and resource uses by all relevant stakeholders. needs. While the demand for land increases, supply is fixed. Land, therefore, becomes increasingly ∙ Land use planning results in a legally binding land use plan and/or legally binding land use scarce. rule. ∙ Land use planning is integrated into state institutions having the official mandate for inter- The result is an increase in the number of land conflicts sector planning. and the level of violence of these conflicts. ∙ Land use planning is a dialogue. ∙ Land use planning is an all-inclusive process. If at an early stage, a consensus on the land use can be ∙ Land use planning is based on stakeholder differentiation and gender sensitivity. negotiated by all conflicting parties and be approved by the ∙ Land use planning promotes civic engagement. responsible official institution making it legally binding, ∙ Land use planning is realistic and oriented to local conditions. conflicts can be avoided. ∙ Land use planning is based on a “light” methodology ∙ Land use planning in terms of methodology and content differs Examples of contrasting land uses leading to competition and conflict ∙ Land use planning considers and valorizes local knowledge. ∙ Agricultural use of land versus industrial, commercial and residential use ∙ Land use planning considers traditional strategies for solving problems and conflicts. ∙ Environmental protection versus agricultural production ∙ Land use planning follows the idea of subsidiarity ∙ Mining versus other land uses ∙ Land use planning integrates bottom-up aspects with top-down aspects (“vertical ∙ Cultivation of agro-fuel plants versus food production integration”). ∙ Production of raw materials for industrial production and thereby economic development ∙ Land use planning is based on inter-disciplinary cooperation and requires sector versus protection of nature and ecological sustainability coordination (“horizontal integration”). ∙ Intensification of cash-crop agriculture for export versus subsistence agriculture and ∙ Land use planning is a process leading to an improvement in the capacity of stakeholders. extensive land use to ensure food security ∙ Land use planning requires transparency. Therefore, free access to information for all ∙ Extension of settlement areas, farms and infrastructure in risk areas versus disasters participants is a prerequisite. prevention (new constructions often increase risks, e.g. by blocking flood areas) ∙ Land use planning is future-oriented (“visionary”). ∙ Competition between long-established settlers and new migrants who had to leave their ∙ Land use planning is an iterative process. home areas due to wars, climate change or natural disasters ∙ Land use planning is implementation-oriented. ∙ Land use planning is linked to financial planning. ∙ Land use planning relates to spaces and places (“spatial orientation”). Land-use planning aims to make the best use of limited resources by: Agenda 21 (1992) ∙ assessing present and future needs and systematically evaluating the land's ability to supply Agenda 21 resulting from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) them; in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro was the first international document highlighting the importance of land ∙ identifying and resolving conflicts between competing uses, between the needs of use planning for sustainable development. individuals and those of the community, and between the needs of the present generation and those of future generations; Agenda21 processes have given an important impulse to land use planning as they focus on ∙ seeking sustainable options and choosing those that best meet identified needs; participatory planning and action at local level to achieve sustainable development. ∙ planning to bring about desired changes; Land use planning can contribute to the mitigation of climate change by identifying areas for forest ∙ learning from experience. protection or afforestation as well as to adaptation to climate change by identifying areas at risk or new Goals of Land Use Planning suitable areas for agricultural production. Efficiency Land use planning can also contribute to the protection of biodiversity, e.g. through zoning of protected ∙ Land use must be economically viable areas. ∙ Achieved by matching different land uses with the areas that will yield the greatest benefits Classification of Land Use Planning at the least cost Equity and Acceptability A. General Land Use Planning ∙ Land use must also be socially acceptable. ∙ Built-up ∙ Goals include food security, employment and security of income in rural areas. ∙ Agriculture Sustainability ∙ Forest ∙ which meets the needs of the present while, at the same time, conserving resources for ∙ Special Use future generations B. Urban Land Use Planning i. Recreational (parks/playgrounds) When is land use planning useful? ii. Infrastructure/Utilities (Transport) Two conditions must be met if planning is to be useful: → Facility ∙ the need for changes in land use, or action to prevent some unwanted change, must be → Services accepted by the people involved; → Utilities ∙ there must be the political will and ability to put the plan into effect. iii. Residential Planning at A Different Level iv. Commercial Land-use planning can be applied at three broad levels: v. Industrial → national vi. Institutional → district General Land Use Planning → local These are not necessarily sequential but correspond to the levels of government at which decisions General land use planning focuses on non-urban large-scale land uses and natural resource about land use are taken. management. It deals with the allocation and management of land for various purposes such as At each successive level of planning, the degree of detail needed increases, and so too should the direct croplands, forests, pasture lands, mining/quarrying areas, and swamplands. participation of the local people. In general land use planning, areas occupied by structures are treated collectively as "built-up" areas. Major land use categories in general land use planning are: Land Use Planning in Achieving International Development Goals a. Built-up – this category includes areas that are developed and occupied by structures, such as Millenium Development Goals residential, commercial, and industrial buildings, as well as infrastructure and utilities. The Millennium Development Goals consist of eight goals to be achieved by 2015. b. Agricultural – this category comprises lands used for agricultural activities, including crop Land Use Planning can contribute to at least three of them: cultivation, livestock rearing, and other agricultural practices. ∙ Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger c. Forest – this category encompasses areas covered by forests or wooded lands, which may be ∙ Promote gender equality and empower women managed for timber production, conservation, or recreational purposes. ∙ Ensure environmental sustainability d. Special Use – this category includes areas designated for specific purposes that do not fall under the UN Sustainable Development Goals other major land use categories. This can include protected areas, natural reserves, wetlands, wildlife → a set of 17 global objectives established by the United Nations in 2015. habitats, and cultural heritage sites. → these goals aim to eradicate poverty, protect the environment, and ensure prosperity for all Urban Land Use Planning by 2030. → by aligning land use decisions with the SDGs, planners can ensure that land resources are Urban land use planning focuses on land use within urban areas, which are characterized by high used efficiently and responsibly, contributing to a sustainable future for all population densities and built-up environments. It is concerned with determining the location, intensity, and amount of land development required for INTEGRATING LAND USE PLANNING INTO PLANNING PROCESS various functions in urban areas. Planning Process Major land use categories in urban land use planning are: The planning process is a process used to develop a. Recreational (Parks/Playgrounds) – this category comprises areas designated for recreational objectives, develop tasks to meet objectives, determine purposes, including parks, playgrounds, sports fields, and open green spaces. needed resources, create a timeline, determine tracking b. Infrastructure/Utilities (Transport) – this category includes areas allocated for essential and assessment, finalize the plan, and distribute the infrastructure and utilities, such as roads, transportation networks, water supply facilities, sewage plan to the team. systems, and power distribution. ∙ Facility – in urban planning premises where health-care, educational, socio-cultural, and Whether it be a strategic plan, an operating plan, or a recreational activities take place. tactical plan, each involves a planning process. ∙ Services – include transportation by rail, road, air, waterways, telecommunication, police LUP in Planning Process protection, firefighting, postal, etc. ∙ Utilities – basic public services like water supply, sewerage, drainage, and electricity supply. To achieve sustainable land use planning, it is c. Residential – this category includes areas designated for housing and residential purposes, including important to link its content with other single-family homes, apartments, and mixed-use residential areas planning process. d. Commercial – this category includes areas designated for housing and residential purposes, Land use planning is understood as partially including single-family homes, apartments, and mixed-use residential areas. integrating and sector-overlapping planning. e. Industrial – this category encompasses areas designated for industrial activities, including Land use ← object of reference manufacturing facilities, warehouses, industrial parks, and logistics centers. It cannot replace an overall planning related to areas, but it can be part of village, district or f. Institutional – this category includes areas designated for institutional uses, such as schools, provincial planning. hospitals, government offices, religious buildings, and community centers. Individual Objectives Land Use Planning Implementation in Development Cooperation There are countless other individual plans by various people, groups and organizations at different Linking present and long-term problems levels. Land use planning is implemented in order to associate solutions for present problems (e.g. soil erosion, insufficient agricultural production, and low income in rural households) with Farmers and livestock owners decide which products they want to have in what areas the planning toward long-term conservation and sustainable use of land resources. whether to increase or reduce the size of their herds and whether to fence off pasture land or Therefore, such planning is based on precautions and is future-oriented based on the to keep meadows for growing fodder only. interests, viewpoints, and problem-solving potential of the participants. Large companies dealing with wood and energy as well as authorities concerned with road- Combining measures from different sectors building or conservation of the nature also decide which areas they wish to use for their It is necessary to find appropriate combinations of different measures in technical, purpose. economic, and social fields and to define these in harmony with each other. This is achieved through land use planning. Competing interests in the use of land resources lead to social conflicts. Lobby for the protection of resources LUP take on the function of an attorney for the concerns of land resources protection which Only partial solutions are achieved. often has no lobby. However, if different planning tasks (land use planning, traffic planning, regional planning) and planning Support in Settling Conflicts levels (village, district, regional, national) are integrated into an overall planning system, it is more likely LUP is used to find solutions to conflicts among various groups of the population, among that the sustainability of agreements reached within a restricted framework (e.g. in village land use villages, between villages and authorities or large companies, between farmers and planning) can be guaranteed. pastoralists, etc. In this process, rules of using the land are negotiated among the parties involved in the conflict. Elements of Planning System Promoting disadvantaged groups and strengthening local planning competence The planning system involves the management, control and regulation of development, balancing public and private development needs with the protection of amenity, and the environment in the wider Emphasis is given to the promotion of disadvantaged groups and to improve their access to public interest. land resources. Women play an active role in LUP, thus their status in the village and in society has to be increased. By applying the principle "learning by doing", participatory LUP 1. Different types of planning is intended to improve the planning competence at local level. The nature of the planning process differs depending on its specific task.  5. Rules The set of rules for the participation of those people affected by planning and their representation at higher levels of planning are manifested. Mechanisms for settling conflicts of interests are agreed on. Centralized Planning Systems Centralized planning systems are characterized by clear and top-down oriented directive structures. The task of the lower administrative levels is to implement the directives of the central authorities. All decisions are made at the highest level, which at the same time also approves the decisions at all levels. Problems arise because of a lack of flexibility in adapting to the local peculiarities. Decentralized Planning Systems In decentralized systems certain powers and at least partial budget autonomy are transferred to lower administrative levels, with the aim of creating participatory decision-making structures. In this process, attempts are often made to take regional and local peculiarities into account using appropriate special regulations, and then integrate them into the overall planning system. 2. Overall Goals of Planning The cost and efforts involved in setting up such complex structures exceeds the means of many The central idea of planning, such as participation, conservation of land resources or balancing of countries. regional disparities. In addition, problems can arise concerning the efficiency of this planning system. In a democratic system the overall goals of planning correspond to the fundamental principles and values in a society Heterogenous Planning Systems 3. Definition of responsibilities At higher administrative levels (national and regional) heterogeneous systems are characterized by modern planning mechanisms, following the example of former colonial powers and other Planning assignments are mandated to certain administrative levels (national, regional, district, industrialized nations. community) and authorities (sectoral and territorial, Department of Agriculture and community) Different regulating mechanisms may work at the lower level. Important city regions are often the 4. Regulating the relationship between the various types of planning exception. The nature of relationships between the various types of planning is stipulated. This results in a vertical Deficits arise in the exchange between the planning levels since central planning concepts are too linkages being made between the planning levels and a horizontal linkages between the various inflexible for local structures. Local regulating mechanisms do not usually include the provision for technical and partially integrative processes. processes for which there are no models in the traditional society. Examples can be found in the implementation of large-scale projects in road-building and large-scale migration movements. Systems like this are typical of many African nations. Policies in Various Planning Systems influencing LUP Various components influence and control land use. Policies on infrastructure, taxes, credit, import/export Environmental and development policies But land use is planned at local level. Therefore, national directives have to be translated into rules for planning land use at local level. Land Use Planning vs Sector-overlapping Planning Processes ∙ integration of directives relevant to LUP ∙ establishment of national conservation areas (national parks) ∙ co-ordination of activities also relevant to LUP (comprehensive spatial planning) ∙ considering and transmitting the need for action articulated at lower level ∙ relevant ministries or technical authorities and organizations ∙ inter-ministerial committees. Province: Objectives ∙ political and administrative acceptance of LUP activities ∙ establishment of institutional and organizational structures ∙ translating national and regional guidelines (comprehensive spatial planning, regional and sectoral planning) into strategies ∙ formulating basic directives of LUP at lower level (translating regional guidelines into strategies) ∙ identifying areas with potentials and areas with risks ∙ establishing protected areas ∙ co-ordination of activities relevant to LUP ∙ considering and transmitting the need for action articulated at lower level. ∙ political and administrative committees ∙ governmental and nongovernmental technical services and sectoral agencies. Vertical and Horizontal Links in LUP Region/District Objectives: ∙ regulation of land use and of checking procedures ∙ establishment of technical services ∙ training for participants (capacity building) ∙ promoting dialogue ∙ putting strategies for land use in concrete terms ∙ offering solutions to problems (problem resolution platform) ∙ establishment of mechanisms for transmitting the needs identified at lower level. ∙ political and administrative committees ∙ forum with responsibility for application of guidelines ∙ governmental and non-governmental technical services. Community/Village: Objectives ∙ conciliation of interests ∙ offering solutions to problems, establishing institutions dealing with LUP-issues (if necessary, based on a traditional system) ∙ decisions on the implementation of LUP ∙ including farms/households in the LUP process ∙ articulating the need for action for superior levels LUP, Flow of Information and Relation to Other Planning at Various Levels ∙ socially accepted committee Based on the “counterflow principle” ∙ planning group as service unit of the higher level (including local experts and facilitators). The flow of information should run in two directions Peoples organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) alone are often too weak to take on Objectives and Responsibilities in LUP according to Planning Levels the duties of a planning agency. National Level: Objectives The responsibility for carrying out land use planning should lie in the hands of the state authorities. ∙ guidelines for policies on conservation and resources use However, complementary to the planning, which is carried out by the population, these authorities ∙ normative directives for the use of resources: legal framework (land and planning rights) should be given a coordinating role to play. ∙ drafting national programs for the use and protection of land resources (tropical forest action plan, desertification control programs, investment guidelines) State authorities should have specialized technical know-how and the financial resources. If there are no regional or national land use planning structures or no clear directives, or if other superior ELEMENTS OF AN IMPLEMENTATION-ORIENTED PLANNING PROCESS planning is restricted to individual sectors (road, building, energy etc) LUP at local level will remain without the necessary recognition or legal back-up. The Elements of the LUP Process This makes it difficult to solve supra-local problems, and sufficient personnel and financial resources Preparation of LUP are not provided. Collection and analysis of data and information Capacity building Conversely, the regional and national LUP will not have an impact if there is no planning at local level in Drawing up plans which the directives of LUP can be integrated. Negotiation and decision making Validation of plans To deal with such situation... Conflict management between opposing interests and positions, and building up manifold A project starts with LUP at local level. Positive experiences in pilot villages are spread to other areas. cooperative relations. At the same time the project extends its action area and incorporates its experiences in the rudimentary superior planning structures. Objectives of Implementation-Oriented Planning A project has the mandate to promote LUP at regional and national levels. It convinces its partner of the Main Objectives necessity to plan the implementation at local level, and will support the implementation in selected villages. Experiences are evaluated and form the basis for a new orientation in regional or national land Optimize land use according to the available local resources use planning. Minimize damage Two or more projects, of which one is placed at national or regional level and the other(s) at local level, Secondary Objectives supplement each other and collaborate. Contribute more to the settlement of conflicts between: o Villages o Arable farmers and pastoralists o Settlers and residents o Different ethnic groups o Forestry authorities and village communities o Large landowners and those owning no land o Landless farmers and agricultural reform authorities or the judiciary o Ethnic groups and new settlers Planning as an Iterative Process Application - well-proven in practice of the technical co-operation and which is called an iterative process Implementation - the implementation of pilot measures begins at the same time as the collection and analysis of data and information Negotiation - negotiating processes accompany the entire course of planning Conclusions - drawn from the experiences and knowledge gained during the steps already carried out Learning - based on a continuous learning process Process - iterative and cyclical; need for a time frame within which certain activities must be concluded Alternatives 1. May become Clear immediately before the final plan is approved that key figures might not have been considered. If this is the case, two alternatives for action may be considered: 2. The participants may decide to finalize the plan first and adapt it later in a further planning process, including all stakeholders; 3. The planning process is going to be stopped and started again immediately after. That means for many participants a U-turn, which is difficult for them to understand. In addition, it causes a considerable delay in finalizing the plan implementation. Two Sides Development of articulated conceptions of land use by the stakeholders; Awareness of disadvantaged groups by supporting agencies and other governmental Advantages authorities, and the will to change their situation easier to react to aberrations and learn from mistakes, Entering into a Dialogue with the Participants leads step by-step through processes of recognition and learning, it leads to solutions and agreements accepted by all participants Life threatening problems are foremost Find initial points from which effective economic advantages can be expected in the shortest Limitations possible time Example : Ganga delta – India, and Namibia this requires that all participants develop an understanding for the tension arising between meeting the directives and the necessity of a flexible adaptation Long-term aspects only applies when mistakes are recognized Initial measures aimed at building up trust. IMPORTANT STEPS IN THE PREPARATION OF LANDUSE PLANNING Balancing between ecological and economic aspects must be clarified. (ecology = long-term economy) Evaluating the Need for Land Use Planning Example : Burkina Faso Initiatives come from: Vocabulary Example : Tanzania 1. Immediate stakeholders 2. Authorities Determining the Unit of Planning 3. Governmental and non-governmental organizations 4. Communities Final decision will always depend on the actual situation 5. Technical projects in rural areas Decision must be made together with the population and the local organizations Sometimes the boundaries of a planning area will change during the course of Reasons for the need for interventions at local level by external organizations: implementation from Mobile user groups , Nomadic livestock for example 1. Due to the planning objectives at higher level, some areas are selected as pilot areas Criteria: 2. An increase of environmental destruction is to be counteracted 3. Land use conflicts are to be settled 1. the group consciousness of the target population 4. Directives for land use in respect of higher level planning 2. their areas for living and production 5. interests are to be forced (e.g. water supply) 3. the territorial boundaries of jurisdiction of the local organizations and the type of the project Prerequisites for Land Use Planning COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INFORMATION Local Sources of Information Primary information The availability of information on national and regional plans Data and development plans (national/regional) Directives and regulations, as well as their analysis and consideration during implementation Consultation with technical services Clarification of work to be accomplished and responsibilities during the implementation, as Research papers well as a realistic time plan, in which the priorities and working rhythms of the rural Statistics stakeholders must be taken into account Information on state budgets and other financial sources (e.g. other donors); Ensuring the necessary extension and financial services Reports on activities of other projects and non-governmental organizations. Using all alternatives of compensation where use is going to be restricted Minimal logistical preconditions. Secondary information Freedom of assembly and freedom of speech The viewpoint and perception of various different groups Mid-term "Regionally Oriented Programmed Planning" (ROPP)used when there is lack of important basic data information consist of 2 stages: Flexibility in actions by the agency, rejecting of formal or theoretical working Approaches, ◦ An analysis of the situation, and the elaboration of the regional development turning to a transparent and participatory working style concept. Extending the possibilities of including nongovernmental Partners Secondary data sources are easy to find but harder to process. Increased acceptance of participatory working methods by the participating population, even where these have no tradition Preparation and Analysis The scale is often irrelevant for village land use planning For the project staff the maps are valuable for locating the village, drawing up general maps Specific data on the entire planning area is required for LUP: and, in rare cases, for establishing and/or verifying boundaries can be used as a basis for creating three-dimensional models of the terrain, since they Data on the available land resources reproduce the contour lines The socio-economic, socio-cultural, organizational and institutional conditions 3D-models, often used in projects working in mountainous regions On the history of the region, and the future visions of the different stakeholder groups GIS: Important tools and techniques (Active participation) Often used to make data processing, storage and retrieval easier. information is collected and analyzed jointly by all participating stakeholder groups , it is use Purchasing and setting up a GIS is no essential prerequisite for LUP and action – oriented important local knowledge of the area Arial photographs: Provides knowledge on local land use systems, Mediates views and values of the participants; Village people can read them without difficulties it can be collected with a clear objective, The recognition of orientation points makes everything much easier; it stimulates the process A problem-oriented analysis of the area is possible by transect walks, local soil and is fun for all participants classifications, etc. and an analysis of cultural peculiarities and social relations is focused It is recommended for the purpose of reading photographs that the individual photos be on; pieced together to make photo mosaics which completely cover certain boundaries and/or It helps to overcome existing language barriers, as local vocabulary is documented at the the village planning area same time. It is important that a copy of this mosaic is kept in the village. This gives the village planning partners confirmation of their responsibility, and also leads to reinforcement, discussion and Division into Land Unit the formulation of ideas apart from planning meetings. For the inventory of the natural potential of the planning area, areas: Technical Equipment, Instruments, and Aids of homogenous characteristics Tool For documented on a map Drawing boards, transparent drawing paper and Laying on top of the aerial photograph mosaic area into units with similar topographical characteristics, edaphic characteristics and a dark marker. similar vegetation cover. Planning design or a simple, transparent, Quick calculation of the surface area squared sheet can be used. An example of a possible procedure for a land unit diagnosis, planning and implementation within Pocketsize clinometer To calculate the slopes in the terrain the framework of the LUP process, aimed at optimization of land use. A galvanized pH tester Assess the pH-value Identifying Agroecological Zones (AEZ) Presentation of the Results of Collection and Analysis of Data The identification of agro-ecological zones is frequently applied in mountainous regions in which land use depends primarily on the elevation. Have to be presented in a way, which is understandable to everyone. Not only those maps produced by GIS specialists or cartographers, but also the maps The following units can be distinguished: prepared by the farmers themselves. Planning units It is also important that the participants should be able to identify themselves in the Land utilization units presentation. Recourses management units These must be also presented in a form, focused on the stakeholders needs. Units of rural development The success of the presentation depends on how strong stakeholders identify themselves with the discussion. Units for protecting food sources Units for consolidating a social organization Example: Argentina Example: Namibia In the project ILE Los Llanos in Rioja, Argentina the following rules were applied for the presentation: Use of local expressions and designations Topographical Maps, Aerial Photographs and GIS In Land Use Planning Reproduction of the content in simple expressions, and – if needed – added by diagrams or Topographical maps: statistics easily to understand Visualization by people who also participated during the analysis process Available to village participants to a limited extent very difficult for them to use THE MANDATE FOR PLANNING AND OF THE AGENCIES Before deciding to promote a certain form of organization at target group level, a project Capacity Building for Land Use Planning should carefully examine and consider the impact on other, existing organizational approaches. Planning is an investment and is therefore carried out in order to achieve additional economic revenue. Co-operation Agreements and "Rules of the Game" One of the aims of land use planning is to achieve an improvement in the economic viability in the planning region. Implementing measures, the work allocated and agreed upon should be fixed and recorded Decentralized proceedings in countries in which a decentralized development is already an in co-operation agreements. implemented policy applies to structures with established responsibilities (mandates). A broad linkage with all participants increases the chances of sustainability of the results. Often, projects start their work in the field of land resources management or rural regional Participatory planning processes are intended to enable the stakeholders to articulate and development without clear institutional structures. represent their interests. Example : Tanzania -HIAP In addition, it gives them the capacity to organize themselves and to increase their self- confidence. Planning agencies must meet the following minimum requirements: The success of participatory LUP depends on a better organization and clear decision- making mechanisms. The establishment of those mechanisms is often more complicated Qualified personnel and equipment than expected. Motivated and technically competent extension personnel Long-term financial security DRAWING UP PLANS Contents of a Land Use Plan Prerequisites can be created by project support: Clearly defined objectives of the measures to be implemented The politically high importance of protection of land resources Description and presentation of the initial situation and its economic analysis The possibility of legal validation for land use agreements and land use plans Costs of the intervention Establishing a legal security with respect to land use, especially in the case of investments to improve land quality (e.g. through Technical Co-operation projects) Effect of the intervention Possibilities of creating or finding on jobs apart from agriculture Who does what work? Who benefits of which use? Integrating of LUP into existing planning hierarchies Overall responsibility for carrying out the measures Possibility of arranging the existence of investment budgets for implementing land use plans Which authorities participate in what way during the implementation process? (government, donors, private sector, etc). Which mechanisms are used if agreements are not fulfilled? Agreed compensation for restrictions on land use. Organizing the Stakeholder Groups Time Frame and Process Character One prerequisite for the success of land use planning is to create conditions which promote the development of relations based on trust amongst all stakeholders. Experience has shown that under normal initial conditions, a period of 2 to 3 years is required These are often small, but social and/or economic support mechanisms. The before the first land use plans are available. implementation of these measures often extends to later planning phases. Measures aimed Must be ensured that not only the content of the plan, but also its form reflects the at building up trust target the village as a whole and cover particularly urgent basic needs or collaboration process between the project and the local population. measures to avert off physical danger. The plan drawn up is the result of a negotiation process which is transparent to all. Example: Namibia –A trip to Zimbabwe LUP is a learning process and can be extended, amended and evaluated within a fixed timeframe. Clarifying Prerequisites Technical Criteria for Assessing Land Use Options and Interventions (Social and political) Questions Criteria For which group or sub-group of stakeholders is the economic support going to be granted? What are the consequences for the development of a general trust if only one sub-group Who are the target groups of the intervention? receives economic support? Which immediate constraints or basic needs of the target group are to be tackled by the What is the effect of any economic support on the internal development of village intervention? organizations and/or existing conflicts within the village? Which assumptions or general conditions must be fulfilled before the intervention is According to which criteria is economic support provided? Who sets the criteria up? Are there implemented? limits with respect to the budget? What else can be suggested? Are there any exclusion Which constraints could hamper the purpose of the intervention? criteria (e.g. no food aid)? Who will be responsible for the management in the future Attention should be paid that the measures aimed at building trust are in line with the future (use/care/operation/maintenance)? working methods of the project.  What contributions are expected from the beneficiaries for(a) the establishment What is the purpose of the presentation (financial means for the implementation, political (construction , installation, planting , etc.)?(b) maintenance? influence/conviction, legal amendments, motivation for others as a pilot case, further education)? Is the intended intervention contrary to or in harmony with other interventions in the region? Who will present the plan (representatives of the target group, a local female politician, the mayor, an In what way should the target groups be prepared in order to ensure the sustainability extensionist)? (conservation/operation/care, etc.) of the intervention? Which future and running costs can be expected ? How will the plan be presented (verbally, with visual tools or in writing)? Who will bear these costs? Which group(s) will be disadvantaged due to the intervention? Map parts What percentage of women participate in comparison to men? Does any local knowledge of land management and land use related to the intervention Base map already exist? Land units What priority does the intervention have as far as the target population is concerned? Map on environmental damage What is the technological level of the proposed intervention? Can this be justified or Map on present land use maintained in the local context? Map on agreed favored land use based on land units What status of organization of the stakeholder groups is necessary in order to make the best Land use plan (proposed land use) use of the intervention? NEGOTIATION AND DECISION MAKING Who is responsible for the further management of the intervention and who will record the quality of it ? Negotiation and Decision Making Who is intended to be the contact partner for the target group in case of potential corrections or modifications? Negotiating is a continues process during the entire project period What is the expected cost-benefit-ratio which should be achieved within the intervention? It begins already with the process of finding and evaluating projects (Establish time frames individually). Usually, no decisions are made during these preliminary negotiations, but stakes and How will the re-financing or timely renewal/repair of the intervention be organized? interests get clarified Subjects are discussed and debated, and possible measures are proposed for the later plan Technical Criteria for Assessing Land Use Options and Interventions (Area) Role of the project and demands on the project in the negotiation process Socio-economic, socio-cultural and logistical aspects and the need to meet the demand for raw materials have to be considered. To initiate and facilitate negotiation processes, the project needs male and female This procedure leads to various land use options in the sequence of their economic employees with appropriate communication skills profitability. This is a condition for the ability to understand and respect different viewpoints, problem- Experience has shown, these areas are often extensively used, eroded bushland or hillsides solving strategies which may be new to the project staff, and the local population frequently destroyed by fire and, in the understanding of the village inhabitants "not really In this process, the project should avoid being involved into local power struggles usable". There is not one solution or one way only These are mostly governmental or communal land but also private land, which has been left open. The obligatory nature of decisions in land use plans Land use planning should also deal with those areas if the objective of the plan is not only to It done voluntarily by all stakeholders involved. meet the immediate needs. The mechanisms needed to define the obligatory nature should therefore be clarified and Social and Formal-organizational Criteria agreed on at the earliest stage in drawing up the plan. The use of existing, or the creation of new legal rules, to enforce agreements should be Short-term economic use for poor parts of the population avoided as far as possible. The marketability of the products At village level there are ways and means to take action against people who infringe on The cultural suitability of proposed technologies internal village regulations. The regulations involve social pressure, but can also mean The conflict potential of measures imposing penalties. The possibility of financing measures and ways of empowering the stakeholders Example: India – Cattle pounds operations Their potential for self-help and their capacity for co-operation Decision-Making and Conflict Management Presentation of the Plan "Cold" conflicts: can literally leave a project cold Questions “Hot“conflicts: they hardly have any effect on the planning process. But there are conflicts, there is a need for action, since there is a potential that parties will refuse to co-operate To whom will the plan be presented (to an authority, a ministry, a neighboring village, a financing institution)?  Empowering the disadvantaged groups. This can even be achieved by explicitly inviting PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN SPATIAL PLANNING landless people or women to attend meetings. By using participatory methods, it is ensured that their interests are at least heard and discussed GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF SPATIAL PLANNING 1. Planning should be positive, setting out a clear vision for how areas should look and function in long- Parties who involve in negotiation process: term. ▪ Spatial planning is far more than controlling development through a regulatory process – 1. Those who are directly or indirectly affected although this is essential to give it real basis in managing land use change. 2. Those who are responsible ▪ Considering what development that people need, being visionary about the type of places 3. Those who competent that people want to live and work in, and mindful of long-term needs of future generations. 4. Those who can support or motivate ▪ Statutory plans have a crucial role: looking forward 10 or 20 years, or even longer, and 5. Those who will impede the process if they are not included considering many and varied needs of local communities. ▪ Large-scale individual projects can also make a significant difference to quality of places Dealing with the Ruling Power Structures (with biodiversity and green infrastructure) Negotiation and decision-making processes are determined by social rank and power. 2. Spatial plans should integrate all social, economic and environmental issues affecting development In practice, this demand is a dilemma for the projects. On the one hand, participatory procedures are and use of land within a specific territorial area. intended, if possible, to give all involved groups the chance to express their interests and to negotiate. ▪ The work of government is carried out on a sectoral basis, with different departments for The project should take on a "neutral" role as moderator or catalyst. On the other hand, power business, housing, health, education, and environment and so on. imbalances should be changed. ▪ Spatial planning, which can be at national, strategic or local level, provides an opportunity: → to integrate all the issues that affect the development and use of land within a specific The project should be clear about the fact that dealing with such conflicts can have negative or even territorial area; and dangerous consequences for the weaker parties involved. → to resolve competing/conflicting uses of limited space and resources EVALUATION AND ACTUALIZATION OF PLANS 3. Spatial plans should consider the strategic issues that may affect a wider area than individual plan, including functional ecological areas: After a certain time, it becomes necessary to actualize a plan because the general conditions and interests have changed. ▪ Administrative boundaries rarely correspond precisely to real geography. This is especially In order to progressively update the plan, a considerable input of time and attendance by all true for natural environment. participants in the planning and implementation process is required. ▪ Functional ecological areas may be based on estuaries, river catchments or semi-natural It is therefore recommended that the land use plan is only to be updated after a certain period habitats such as highlands or forest. of time but within the fixed limits, i.e. every 3 to 4 years. ▪ This principle is particularly important for spatial plans prepared by local planning authorities A change in the land use plan also requires a revision of the cost of the implementation. where there is no higher level of spatial planning, as functional ecological areas often cross many local authority boundaries. Expenses are to be planned well in advance and kept within a limited budget. 4. Spatial plans should contribute to sustainable development by ensuring that social and economic The project has two options for the plan implementation: development takes place within the environmental limits. 1. It can decide to advise the village of an upper limit of available finances within all technical ▪ Guiding principles of sustainable development are defined as: living within the planet’s interventions should be covered. It therefore also represents the volume of financial environmental limits and ensuring a strong, healthy and just society, underpinned by a investments for land improvement measures, including new proposals. sustainable economy, good governance and responsible use of sound science. 2. Additional finances can be found either through the land users themselves or through ▪ For many spatial planning systems, achieving sustainable development is the central additional governmental or international funding, which then enter as a contractual purpose, and spatial plans play a key role. component for a partial implementation of the plan. ▪ A healthy natural environment is fundamental to sustainable development. Given the scale of biodiversity loss and the degradation of ecosystem services, spatial plans need to protect and enhance what we have where is possible. 5. Plans and projects should be based on up-to-date and scientifically robust evidence ▪ Spatial planning is both an art and a science. The preparation of both spatial plans and projects should be based on sound evidence tested through some form of examination or investigation process. ▪ Evidence will be drawn from a variety of sources, but in the case of the natural environment, it is important that it is scientifically robust and credible.  ▪ It must be up-to-date, methodologically sound, and based on professional expertise. ▪ The planning appeal process should deal with the vast majority of cases satisfactorily, but environmental justice may in some cases require legal redress for affected individuals and 6. Plans and projects should be carefully assessed for their environmental impacts, and their results communities. used to improve the plan. ▪ The judicial review of planning decisions should be restricted to points of law rather than planning merits of the case, and can be prohibitively expensive. ▪ Many spatial plans are proposed to achieve economic and social objectives, such as the need for new housing, businesses, shops, roads and other infrastructure. 10. Public authorities should be given the legal powers and resources to enforce planning laws, ▪ They need to be assessed carefully for their environmental impacts. Not simply to inform especially where illegal development is resulting in environmental damage. decision-maker or to tick a box, but to improve the plan so that it is more sustainable. ▪ This is true for spatial plans with an environmental objectives (reducing flood risk) as they ▪ Enforcement of planning law is a matter of last resort, but it is essential to strengthen the may negatively impact on other aspects of natural environment. planning system. ▪ Likewise, public authorities (local planning authority) need to have resources to carry out 7. Alternative options should be considered, particularly those that are less damaging to environment, effective enforcement of planning laws and regulations. and reasons for rejecting any options should be made public. 11. Plans should be regularly monitored and reviewed ▪ Considering alternative options is an integral part of the planning process, particularly in strategic planning when a wide range of options is available. ▪ Planning is not a one-off activity of preparing a plan. ▪ These include a range of development and spatial scenarios for the plan area. ▪ It is a continuous cycle from collecting evidence and drafting the plan to adopting it, ▪ The challenge for spatial planners is to rationally consider a wide range of realistic monitoring its implementation and reviewing the plan in the light of changing situations. alternatives that put the society on a more sustainable way. ▪ Good planning process should have the monitoring and review phases as an integral parts of ▪ The mitigation hierarchy of: spatial plan-making: ◦ avoiding environmental harmful activities, ◦ including monitoring across a full range of indicators: economic, social and ◦ mitigating for any adverse impacts, and environmental outcomes. ◦ Compensating for residual impacts, ◦ Seeking for environmental enhancement where possible ▪ Considering alternative options that are less damaging to environment is relevant to all these METHODS OF SPATIAL PLANNING steps, as options can be strategic or more detailed. 1. Respect and plan around the physical characteristics of the land. ▪ Slope 8. Public participation is essential and should be both timely and inclusive of civil society, whether ▪ Soil types community groups or other stakeholders. ▪ Rare geological ▪ Vegetation ▪ Public participation in planning process is a long-established feature of spatial planning systems. 2. Consider the capacity and characteristics of the transportation system ▪ Legislation provides many opportunities for the public to be involved in both plan making and decision-taking. ▪ Transportation is the second most, after spatial configuration of land, important determinant ▪ There are close links with the democratic decision-making process. for land use. ▪ Heavy traffic generators should be placed on the larger capacity streets. 9. Decision-making must be transparent and made by a democratically accountable body or person. ▪ Major shopping and other traffic generating uses should be placed at major intersections so there is access from two high-capacity streets. ▪ Planning raises many issues, which can make decision-making more complex, at both the national and local level. 3. Recognise existing land uses and growth centres ▪ Transparent and democratically accountable decision-making is fundamental to ensuring that interests of the environment are properly taken into consideration in the planning ▪ First Law of Geography (Waldo Tobler 1970): "everything is related to everything else, but near system. things are more related than distant things. ▪ Spatial planning decisions have significant consequences for landowners, developers, ▪ Proximity principle in predicting land use pattern communities and frequently for the environment. ▪ Spatial planners are encouraged to recognise and designate the existing downtown and any ▪ Thus, adversely affected by a planning decision should have an opportunity to challenge it. other major shopping or activity centres, and then plan to allow auxiliary services to group ▪ It is crucial that when poor decisions are made, there is an opportunity to put them right. near them ▪ Planning systems therefore allow for developers to appeal on the merits of the case against 4. Spatial efficiency/Optimum density a refusal of planning permission, usually to an independent body such as the Planning Inspectorate. ▪ Discovering ways to make increased housing density and commercial intensity acceptable ▪ Appeal systems allow for third party views to be taken into account, although there is no as land use planning principles in your community is a very important project. opportunity for third parties to challenge decisions directly. ▪ The density of the housing allowed also should relate to the capacity of the transportation system and physical characteristics of the land.  ▪ This importance stems both from the need to avoid suburban sprawl and the desire to keep your community's carbon footprint small by limiting car dependency 5. Making land use transitions gradual ▪ Nearby uses have to be compatible. ▪ As spatial planner you should not place heaviest industry by residential core zone. ▪ Residential should give way to neighborhood-scale retail, then to more intense retail and light industry. ▪ Heavy industry, sanitary landfills, and visually unappealing uses deserve some well- considered transitions from your most desirable real estate. 6. Mixed-use development ▪ Try to respect the historic pattern of smaller communities that are naturals at mixed-use. 7. Transit-oriented