Midterm 1 Study Guide PDF: Environmental Science

STUDY GUIDE Be sufficiently familiar with the content of videos, newspaper articles, book chapters, and articles to understand how they relate to or illustrate course themes or concepts ​ Lear’s introduction to Silent Spring: Carson’s unique insights, original contributions, departures from pre...

STUDY GUIDE Be sufficiently familiar with the content of videos, newspaper articles, book chapters, and articles to understand how they relate to or illustrate course themes or concepts ​ Lear’s introduction to Silent Spring: Carson’s unique insights, original contributions, departures from previous thinking about health, science, technology ​ Carson's unique insights: ○​ challenged the unchecked optimism of post-war science and technology, particularly the widespread faith in chemical pesticides. ○​ Introduced the idea that humans were not separate from nature but were deeply interconnected with it, making environmental degradation a direct threat to human health ​ Original contributions: ○​ Silent Spring reframed environmentalism as a public health issue, emphasizing how synthetic pesticides entered human bodies through food, water, and air ○​ Carson’s “ecology of the human body” was a groundbreaking perspective, demonstrating that bioaccumulation of chemicals could have long-term health effects, including cancer ​ Departures from previous thinking about health, science, and technology: ○​ Unlike the prevailing belief that technological progress was inherently beneficial, Carson argued that science must be subject to ethical scrutiny ○​ She questioned the government's role in allowing toxic chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their consequences ○​ She rejected the industry claims that pesticides were safe in “low doses,” arguing that long-term exposure and interactions between chemicals were not well-understood Age of Scarcity -- authors, texts, major concepts, recommendations ​ Authors and texts: ○​ Linda Lear’s Introduction and Rachel Carson’s A Fable for Tomorrow in Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (2002) ○​ John Schwartz’s Where’s Airborne Plastic? Everywhere, Scientists Find (NY Times, June 11, 2020) ○​ Brad Balukjian’s Frogs ingest pesticides from agricultural fields 100 miles away (LA Times, July 26th, 2013) ○​ Natalia Britto dos Santos’ Spaceship Earth Economy: Boulding’s Lessons on Sharing the Planet (Feb. 8, 2017) ○​ William Ophuls’ The Politics of Scarcity (1977) ○​ Dr. Seuss’ The Lorax (1971) ○​ Alan Weisman’s Overpopulation: why ingenuity alone won’t save us (LA Times, Sep. 22, 2013) ○​ Laurie Mazur’s Ban the population bomb (LA Times, Nov. 3, 2015)  ○​ Global Footprint Network’s Country Overshoot Days 2025, Earth Overshoot Day 2024, Past Overshoot Days ​ Major Concepts: ○​ Introduction- Linda Lear ○​ Environmental awareness and the birth of modern ecology: Redefined the relationship between humans and the natural world, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all living things. Challenged the post-war belief that technological progress, especially in chemistry, was inherently beneficial. Framed environmentalism as a public health issue, arguing that synthetic pesticides, especially DDT, disrupted ecosystems and posed risks to human health ○​ Dangers of unchecked technological advancement: Warned that pesticides were being used without understanding the long-term effects on ecosystems and human health. Opposed the dominant scientific narrative that claimed low doses of chemicals were harmless, arguing that bioaccumulation could lead to severe consequences over time ○​ Science, government, and corporate interest: Government agencies and the chemical industry failed to regulate pesticide use responsibly. The chemical industry manipulated public perception to make pesticides seem safe while downplaying their risks. The government sided with industry interests and failed to implement proper safety tests before approving chemicals for widespread use. ○​ The role of the individual in environmental advocacy: spurred environmental activism, which led to the banning of the domestic production of DDT. Lear explains that Carson empowered citizens to demand environmental protection, contributing to the eventual establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Carson also emphasized the “right to know,” asserting that the public had a right to know about the risks posed by new technologies. ○​ Gender and scientific authority: Carson faced significant barriers in a male-dominated field. Her gender and lack of institutional affiliation were used against her by industry critics. However, her credibility and research made it impossible to dismiss her arguments outright. ○​ The legacy of Silent Spring: Laid the groundwork for modern environmental movement. While it led to many important policy changes, Lear notes that environmental degradation continues, highlighting the ongoing struggle against industrial pollution. Carson’s concept of “the ecology of the human body” also remains relevant today, influencing contemporary discussions on environmental toxins and public health. ○​ A fable for tomorrow: ○​ The fragility of nature and the loss of biodiversity: Carson describes a perfect American town where nature and human life coexist in harmony. However, a mysterious blight disrupts this peace by causing widespread sickness and death in plants, animals, and humans. The disappearance of birds, insects, and fish highlights the fragility of ecosystems when exposed to human-made chemicals. ○​ Consequences of unchecked technological advancement: The source of destruction is the reckless use of pesticides. Carson critiques the blind faith of  industrial and agricultural chemicals that promise progress but result in unintended, harmful consequences. ○​ Environmental pollution and human health risks: the fable depicts not only ecological damage but also public health crises, as people fall sick and die suddenly. Pollution spreads to affect entire communities and future generations. ○​ The responsibility of humanity: The final line-” the people had done it themselves,”-emphasizes human agency in environmental destruction. If humans are responsible for environmental harm, they can also change course and restore balance. ○​ Where’s Airborne Plastic?- Schwartz ○​ Plastic pollution has infiltrated every aspect of the environment, including the air we breathe. Plastic particles can travel long distances through atmospheric currents and while larger particles fall with rain and snow, smaller particles can remain airborne and spread across the planet. Further research must be done to fully understand the health impacts. Plastic pollution is a systemic issue that extends beyond physical waste, and findings suggest that plastic particles are now integrated into Earth’s natural cycles, much like carbon emissions and industrial pollutants. Further research on systemic solutions to this issue is necessary. ○​ Frogs ingest pesticides- Balukjian ○​ Pesticide contamination in remote ecosystems: The study found pesticide residues in frogs from the Sierra Nevada, which is far from agricultural areas. Even though the pesticides were used 50-100 miles away, they still reached remote national parks and wilderness areas ○​ Atmospheric transport of pesticides: pesticides can be carried by precipitation, wind, and dust, which allows them to travel long distances. Some of the chemicals found in the frogs included a degraded form of DDT (which was banned over 40 years ago), which demonstrates the persistence of these toxins in the environment. ○​ Frogs as indicators of ecosystem health: Frogs are highly sensitive to environmental changes, which makes them valuable indicators of ecological health. The decline of frog populations due to pesticide exposure signals broader environmental and food web disruptions. ○​ Potential long-term effects on wildlife: Although trace amounts of pesticides were found in the frogs, the long-term effects remain unknown. Pesticides may weaken immune systems, making the frogs more vulnerable to diseases, which may be contributing to their decline in population. ○​ The need for better monitoring and regulation: The study challenges traditional methods of testing for chemical contamination, which generally focus on water and soil rather than directly analyzing affected wildlife. Researchers stress the importance of stronger environmental regulations and improved tracking of pesticide spreading. ○​ Spaceship Earth Economy: Santos ○​ The contrast between cowboy and spaceman economies: The cowboy economy is based on the assumption of unlimited resources, and prioritizes short-term gains over long-term stability. Spaceman economy recognizes Earth’s finite resources and the need for cyclical, sustainable systems. Success is measured not by consumption but by the maintenance of ecological balance and resource efficiency. ○​ The Earth as a closed system: Modern civilization must operate under a closed system. Human survival depends on maintaining ecological equilibrium rather than depleting natural capital. ○​ The role of thermodynamics in economics: All systems require energy inputs and produce waste. A sustainable economy should minimize waste, prioritize renewable energy, and adopt circular economic practices. ○​ Intergenerational responsibility and ethical resource use: The well-being of future generations must be considered, not just economic gain. The idea of long-term stewardship is crucial, as short-term exploitation leads to irreversible environmental degradation. ○​ The need for a paradigm shift in economic thinking: Calls for a fundamental shift from a growth-centric economy to one that values ecological stability and human well-being. This includes redefining prosperity, reducing material consumption, and integrating environmental concerns into economic policy. ○​ The politics of scarcity- Ophuls ○​ Argues that modern political and economic systems are unsustainable in the face of resource depletion. Perpetual growth is unsustainable due to limited resources. Politics will shift towards authoritarian control, prioritizing allocation and survival over individual freedoms. The failure to address environmental degradation will lead to economic decline, food and water shortages, and intensified geopolitical conflicts. His work calls for a radical transformation in governance and human values to ensure long-term survival. Societies must embrace new values focused on conservation, restraint, and collective well-being rather than consumption and economic expansion. ○​ The Lorax- Seuss ○​ The Onceler’s greed led to the destruction of the Truffula Trees and led to ecosystem collapse. The story is a critique of profit-driven industrial expansion at the expense of nature. The loss of Truffula trees affected interconnected ecosystems, which illustrates the ripple effects of environmental harm. The Onceler’s factory also causes air and water pollution, which symbolizes real-world environmental damage caused by industry. The Onceler disregards the Lorax’s warnings until it’s too late, which represents humanity's failure to act on environmental crises. At the end of the story, the Onceler gives the last truffula tree seed to a child, which shows that change is still possible if people take action. ○​ Overpopulation- Weisman ○​ Technology alone cannot overcome the issue of overpopulation and its strain on resources. Exceeding the planet's limited capacity to support human life leads to  environmental degradation, food and water shortages, and biodiversity loss. Population growth increases demand for food, water, and energy. It also contributes to deforestation, pollution, and climate change. Sustainable solutions require reducing birth rates through voluntary family planning, education, and improved healthcare. Population stabilization is a politically sensitive issue because of cultures, religions, and economic factors. Without proactive measures, resource scarcity and environmental collapse will become unavoidable, affecting global stability and human well-being. ○​ Ban the population bomb- Mazur ○​ Critique of population alarmism: past fears of overpopulation, such as Paul Ehrlich’s “population bomb”, led to coercive policies like China’s one-child policy and sterilizations in India and Peru. ○​ Population growth and environmental impact: while population growth affects resource consumption, its impact varies based on wealth and consumption patterns (developed countries have a larger carbon footprint per person) ○​ Equity and sustainability: Addressing population issues should focus on reducing inequality, improving access to resources, and ensuring sustainable consumption rather than enforcing strict population controls ○​ The role of family planning and education: voluntary access to contraception, reproductive health services, and education - especially for women - are the most effective and ethical ways to stabilize population growth ○​ A shift from feat to choice: policies should empower individuals to make informed reproductive choices ○​ Country overshoot days ○​ Humanity is consuming resources faster than the Earth can regenerate them, leading to long-term environmental degradation. Each country has an overshoot day, marking when its resource consumption surpasses what the planet can sustainably provide if everyone lived like its residents. Wealthier, high-consumption nations reach their overshoot days much earlier in the year. The global overshoot day signifies when humanity as a whole exceeds Earth’s annual resource budget. In 2024 it was August 1st, which means we are using Earth’s resources 1.7 times faster than the planet can regenerate them. Overshooting leads to biodiversity loss, deforestation, soil erosion, climate change, and resource depletion, threatening future sustainability. Over the years, Earth’s overshoot day has been occurring earlier each year, reflecting increasing consumption and environmental strain. ​ Recommendations: ○​ Introduction: strengthen environmental regulations on chemical pesticides, hold governments and corporations accountable for environmental harm, promote public awareness of ecological risks, advocate for the “right to know,” shift scientific priorities to ethical and long-term ecological considerations ○​ A fable for tomorrow: reduce the use of harmful pesticides and chemicals, recognize the interconnectedness of human and environmental health, and adopt sustainable agricultural and industrial practices  ○​ Where’s airborne plastic?: improve waste management systems to reduce plastic pollution, conduct further research on the health impacts of inhaled microplastics, implement stricter regulations on plastic production and disposal, and promote alternative, biodegradable materials. ○​ Frogs ingest pesticides: strengthen regulations on pesticide use and limit atmospheric spread, expand monitoring efforts to include wildlife exposure, not just water and soil, and promote eco-friendly farming alternatives to reduce pesticide dependency ○​ Spaceship earth economy: shift from cowboy economy to spaceman economy, minimize waste and prioritize circular economic systems, focus on long-term ecological health rather than short-term economic growth, and redefine success based on ecological stability and well-being, not GDP ○​ The politics of scarcity: prepare for a transition from abundance-based to scarcity-based governance. Implement policies that account for ecological limits, transition to sustainable systems rather than relying on finite resources, shift cultural values from material growth to restraint and conservation ○​ The Lorax: protect forests and ecosystems from overexploitation, regulate industries that cause habitat destruction and pollution, replant and restore damaged ecosystems, and promote individual responsibility and grassroots environmental action ○​ Overpopulation: address overpopulation with voluntary family planning and education, reduce global birthrates through improved healthcare and economic opportunities, and address the limitations of technological solutions in addressing resource scarcity ○​ Ban the population bomb: move away from coercive population control policies, expand access to voluntary family planning and reproductive healthcare, promote gender equality and education for women and girls, and address inequality in resource consumption rather than just focusing on population numbers ○​ Country overshoot days: reduce carbon emissions by transitioning to renewable energy, shift to sustainable food systems with lower environmental impact, improve efficiency in resource use and adopt circular economic policies, and encourage governments and businesses to prioritize sustainability Hardin’s “tragedy of the commons” and proposed solution; Ophuls’ analysis and influences from enlightenment-era political theory ​ Hardin’s solution: mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon by the majority ​ The tragedy of the commons: challenged assumptions of a free market capitalist economy ​ Hardin: in the age of scarcity, individually “rational” choices now lead to collective ruin/destruction of ecosystems ​ Metaphor: herders grazing on common property. Privatization of benefits, socialization of costs. All herders have the same “incentive structure,” leading to inevitable ruin and collapse.  ​ Global overpopulation = tragedy of the commons ​ Ophuls argues that Enlightenment-era political ideals rooted in expansion and abundance are ill-suited for an era of ecological limits. He suggests governments must adopt stronger regulatory controls to prevent environmental collapse, even if it means restricting individual freedoms. Walter Rosenbaum’s concerns about limits on EPA effectiveness. Know some examples of these challenges from his chapter or other readings ​ Political interference and regulatory rollbacks: changes in presidential administrations often result in shifts in EPA policies, leading to inconsistent enforcement of environmental regulations. ​ Industry resistance and legal challenges: powerful industries challenge EPA regulations through lawsuits, delaying implementation and weakening environmental protections. Companies argue that EPA decisions, such as pesticide bans, are inconsistent with the scientific data they provide ​ Resource constraints: The EPA faces budgetary and staffing limitations, making it difficult to enforce environmental laws effectively. Limited funding restricts the agency’s ability to conduct research, monitor pollution, and implement new policies ​ Scientific uncertainty and delayed decision-making: the agency must base its regulations on scientific evidence, but industry-funded studies often challenge EPA findings, causing delays. ​ State-level inconsistencies: while some states, like CA and NY, implement stricter environmental policies, others resist federal regulations, leading to uneven enforcement nationwide ​ Examples: the chlorpyrifos ban is an example of how regulatory action can be delayed due to political and industry pushback (proposed under Obama, reversed by Trump, and reinstated under Biden). Legal battles over pesticide regulations illustrate the difficulties the EPA faces in enforcing bans when corporate interests intervene. The shifting role of the EPA across administrations demonstrates how environmental policy can change drastically, impacting long-term regulatory effectiveness. Environmental regulatory policy, both first generation (top-down) and second-generation (bottom-up reforms): understand and have examples of basic assumptions, proposals, principles, policies. ​ Assumptions: ○​ Conventional environmental regulations may be too inflexible to adapt to rapidly changing conditions and knowledge ○​ Effective environmental protection requires the cooperation of various stakeholders, including environmentalists, developers, farmers, industrialists, and government officials ○​ Local knowledge and participation are crucial for successful environmental regulation ○​ Environmentalism is a firmly established political reality that necessitates public oversight of environmental risks  ​ Proposals: ○​ Rolling rule regimes: these regimes combine local experimentation with centralized pooling of experience, where regulators periodically reformulate minimum performance standards based on reports on proposals and outcomes ​ Principles: ○​ Accountability: central authorities ensure that local units meet their commitments by coordinating activities, monitoring performance, and enforcing feasible standards ○​ Transparency: public disclosure of information, such as the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) can discipline polluting private actors ○​ Continuous improvement: emphasizing measurement, evaluation, and continuous improvement of performance ○​ Local autonomy: local actors are given the responsibility to devise suitable measures within broad policy areas, such as watershed management or toxics reduction ​ Policies: ○​ Performance-based regulation: this framework emphasizes local knowledge and participation, broader and deeper than earlier regimes. Examples include the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and the Massachusets Toxics Use Reduction Act (TURA). ○​ Command and control regulation involves setting standards and enforcing them through legal mechanisms. However, the sources suggest that this approach may be too rigid and may not address all relevant issues. ○​ Market-based mechanisms: these include tradeable emissions permits and cost-benefit analysis. The sources suggest these systems demand more information than they can satisfy. ○​ Habitat conservation plans (HCPs): these plans allow for the “taking” of endangered species if it is incidental to otherwise lawful activities, provided the plan includes measures to minimize and mitigate the impact on the species ○​ Banning of pesticides: the EPA banned chlorpyrifos from food crops due to risks to children and farm workers Also know the limitations and shortcomings of regulatory politics, and be prepared to offer specific illustrations from readings, lecture, or video ​ Limitations of centralized command regulations: inflexibility, limited scope, unintended consequences ​ Shortcomings of market-based mechanisms: information demands, limits on corrections ​ Limitations of voluntarism: lack of accountability and potential for self-interest to undermine goals ​ Limitations of HCPs: variable performance, potential for undemocratic deals, information pooling ecological thresholds: definitions and examples from readings, lecture, or video ​ Tipping points beyond sustainability. Scientific uncertainty  ​ Examples include species extinction, fisheries, ocean acidification and pteropods, and monarchs weak state capacity (lax enforcement, impunity), agency capture, influence of money in politics: be able to define, and to provide specific examples from readings, lecture, and video ​ Low state capacity, weak institutions ○​ According to the Fragile States Index, Fiji, China, and Bhutan are the most fragile/weak states. ​ Lax enforcement/impunity: ○​ The flint water situation is an example of lax enforcement/impunity. The lack of enforcement and punishment regarding the Flint Water situation has resulted in little to no progress when it comes to fixing their water. Another example is the Exide Smelter in Vernon CA. ​ Agency capture: ○​ Regulatory agency capture: a corruption of authority that occurs when a political entity, policymaker, or regulatory agency is co-opted to serve the interests of a constituency, area, industry, profession, or group. When this occurs, a special interest is prioritized over the interests of the general public. Government agencies suffering regulatory capture are called captured agencies. ​ Examples include SEC, AQMD, NRC, and MMS. ​ Senator Jeffords, 2005 senate hearing: I would respectfully remind the NRC that the R stands for regulatory. ​ MMS has given up any pretense of regulating the offshore oil industry. ​ SEC: the agency seems to think its mission is to help the oil industry evade environmental laws ​ AQMD: Your names will be etched on the lungs of our children ​ Money in politics: iron triangles, revolving doors. Koch Brothers have media manipulators, think tanks, astroturf agents, wealth warriors, congressional collaborators, academic agents, and physical force whose profits all funnel to the Brian Trust, which the Koch Brothers profit off of. Iron triangles are powerful, 3-way, mutually reinforcing policy-making relationships between Congress, captured agencies (the EPA), and private industry polluters. ○​ Congress offers operating budget and policy control to captured agencies, which offer lax regulations to private industry polluters, which offer campaign cash and lobbying to Congress. The president is also involved since they appoint agency heads to captured agencies and receives campaign cash and lobbying from private industry polluters. There is a revolving door between private industry polluters and captured agencies. Simon & Kahn’s challenge to age of scarcity; specific assertions. Know the points of data or evidence they use to rebut Global 2000 ​ Specific assertions:  ○​ They argue that as resources become scarce, market forces drive innovation, leading to new technologies, alternatives, and more efficient usage. ○​ Unlike global 2000, which predicts disaster due to global overpopulation, they claim that rising population can be beneficial, leading to more minds working towards solutions for global challenges ○​ Rather than running out of critical materials, they argue that efficiency improvements, substitutions, and new discoveries prevent long-term shortages ○​ They emphasize that price signals naturally regulate consumption, ensuring that truly scarce resources are either replaced or used more efficiently. ​ Rebuttal of Global 2000: ○​ They show that, contrary to the report's warnings, the prices of key commodities (like metals and energy sources) have declined over time, indicating increased availability rather than scarcity ○​ They highlight advances in agricultural technology (eg. the green revolution) that have led to food surpluses rather than widespread shortages ○​ Instead of unchecked environmental degradation, they present evidence of improved air and water quality in many industrialized nations due to technological innovations and policy reforms Lecture, newsclips on history of sagebrush rebels, wise use, and origins of US anti- Environmentalism ​ Sagebrush rebels and wise use: ○​ New strategies. More money. Support of conservative think tanks: Rand, heritage, enterprise, ALEC/Koch Bros, Competitive Enterprise, Cooler heads, heartland, etc. ○​ Anti-science, anti-intellectualism, muddying the waters with pseudo-science ○​ Greenscamming or aggressive mimicry: to create and fund non-profits and organizations that actively lobby for limiting the scope of environmental authority. They are a part of the anti-science movement but give themselves a name that makes it sound like they’re a part of it ○​ Wise use movement: coordinated effort to alter the direction of policy ○​ 2000s property rights (“takings” lawsuits). 2000s-2020s: climate denialism ​ Origins: ○​ Simon: limits and scarcity are misinterpreted/fiction. Reject regulation/coercion. Faith in market capitalism, profit motive, and competition. embrace laissez faire --> innovation, technology, solutions. eg: peak oil, a myth. New technologies will unlock new sources, substitutes Ehrlichs on wise use and associated movements. Know the tactics and strategies used by the anti-environmental movement, and its scope and impacts over time ​ Ehrlichs: brownlash, libertarian, political conservative, reaganomics. Avoid restrictions, rules, and regulations. ​ Tactics and strategies: greenscamming, takings lawsuits, climate denialism, anti-science, anti-intellectualism Charles Sabel’s “performance based” framework for democratizing regulatory policy (“Beyond Backyard Environmentalism”). Be familiar with the authors’ assessments and summary characterizations of their case studies: TRI, TURA, INPO, Responsible Care, Chesapeake Bay Program. ​ Performance-based framework: ○​ regulations should be flexible and should be able to be continuously updated based on new data and local experiences rather than being fixed by centralized authority ○​ Local communities and businesses set environmental goals and devise solutions, while higher authorities monitor progress, share best practices, and refine standards ○​ Instead of a strict top-down hierarchy, regulatory success depends on collaboration between local actors, regulators, and the public ○​ Unlike traditional regulatory models, citizens play an active role in shaping policy and implementing solutions alongside experts ○​ Regulations evolve over time based on real-world results, rather than being locked into outdated rules ​ Assessments and summary characterizations: ○​ TRI: a federal right-to-know initiative requiring companies to disclose toxic emissions. Public reporting pressures firms into lowering pollution voluntarily. Demonstrated that transparency and information sharing can drive environmental improvements ○​ TURA: expanded TRI by requiring firms to report toxic use in production, not just emissions. Mandated reduction planning, which led to significant declines in toxic chemical use. Showed that self-monitoring and peer learning improve compliance and innovation ○​ INPO: a private sector initiative improving nuclear safety through industry self-regulation. Succeeded only after incorporating public oversight and accountability mechanisms. Demonstrated that private initiatives require external scrutiny to be effective. ○​ Responsible care: voluntary pollution reduction program by the chemical industry. Faced credibility issues due to a lack of public oversight. Highlighted the need for regulatory frameworks that ensure accountability ○​ Chesapeake Bay Program: regional collaboration to restore water quality in Chesapeake Bay. Evolved from broad agreements to more targeted, data-driven interventions. Demonstrated the effectiveness of adaptive, ecosystem-based management.