Mexico's Beginnings PDF

2 Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads Part I Part I: Mexico’s Beginnings I n the Plaza of the Three Cultures in Mexico City, a plaque in front of a sixteenth-century church contains the following inscription:...

2 Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads Part I Part I: Mexico’s Beginnings I n the Plaza of the Three Cultures in Mexico City, a plaque in front of a sixteenth-century church contains the following inscription: cated of these societies were located in what is now central Mexico and Central America. “On August 12, 1521, heroically defended by Who were the early inhabitants Cuauhtemoc [emperor of the Aztecs], Tlate- of this region? lolco fell into the hands of Hernán Cortés. It Olmec society, often described as the was neither a triumph nor a defeat: it was the “mother civilization” of this area, flourished as painful creation of the mestizo nation that is early as 1200 B.C.E. The Olmecs were known Mexico today.” for their fine art, great stone monuments, and The inscription reflects the mixed feelings for the creation of pictographs that were used that Mexicans have toward their country’s ori- as a written language. This was the first known gins. Mexicans today have a great deal of pride written language in the Western Hemisphere. in their indigenous past. The achievements of The Olmecs also developed sophisticated cul- the region’s early civilizations hold a promi- tivation and irrigation techniques for farming. nent place in Mexican history and culture. These developments greatly influenced later Many Mexicans remember the resistance of the societies in the region, such as the Mayas. Aztecs during the Spanish conquest as the he- The Mayas constructed their first city- roic defense of a sophisticated society against states around 150 C.E. in what is today the savage Spanish conquistadors (conquerors). country of Guatemala. The Mayas built huge At the same time, Mexicans cannot deny their Spanish heritage and the influence of nearly three hundred years of Spanish colonialism on Mexican society. Most Mexicans are mestizo, a mix of indigenous and European ancestry. Tensions between indigenous and Span- ish, conquered and conqueror, continue to exist today. The descendents of Spanish conquistadors continue to control much of Mexico’s land and wealth. At the opposite extreme, millions in rural indigenous com- munities are among the poorest people in the Western Hemisphere. For members of Mexico’s mestizo majority, the divisions are more com- plex. For those who want to understand Mexico today, understanding early Mexican history is crucial. As you read, try to note the connec- tions between past and present. Philo Nordlund (CC BY 2.0). Early Mexican Societies The region which is now Mexico is geo- graphically diverse, with arid desert in the north and fertile valleys in the central region. This Olmec stone sculpture is more than six feet When the Spanish arrived in the sixteenth wide and nearly nine feet tall. The Olmecs were century, it was inhabited by diverse groups known for their fine art, and their inventions and kingdoms. The largest and most sophisti- influenced later societies in the region. The Choices Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads 3 Part I stone pyramids, palaces, and temples. They also developed a complicated calendar system, possibly to help them determine optimal times to plant or harvest their crops. Their society was hierarchical, with the nobility rul- ing over commoners and slaves. In order to expand their territory, the Mayas Justin Vidamo (CC BY 2.0). conquered neighboring kingdoms. The Mayas forced the conquered king- doms to pay a regular tax but otherwise left them to govern themselves. In later The ruins of the city of Teotihuacán today. The Pyramid of the Sun is to the centuries, the center of right. Maya civilization extended north to the Yucatán Pen- tihuacán was carefully planned, with wide insula. Maya people still live in Mexico today. thoroughfares connected in a grid pattern. The The rise of the Mayas occurred alongside architecture and art of the people of Teoti- the development of the city of Teotihuacán in huacán show that religion was very important the Valley of Mexico (the location of present- to them. In the heart of the city was a cer- day Mexico City). Historians are not sure emonial center of approximately two square of the exact origin of the people who built miles that held numerous stone pyramids and this city, although they often refer to them temples. The city’s Pyramid of the Sun is the as Teotihuacanos. The construction of Teo- third-largest pyramid in the world. (The larg- Highlights of Major Early Mexican Societies Society Dates City/Region Great Achievements “Mother civilization” 1200 to 800 Olmec Southern Mexico First written language in Western Hemi- B.C.E. sphere Second cen- Central America, Stone pyramids, palaces, temples Maya tury C.E. to extended into Yucatán present Peninsula Developed calendar system Unknown Carefully planned city Second to Teotihuacán (often called Constructed third largest pyramid in the seventh Teotihuaca- Valley of Mexico world century C.E. nos) City was religious and trading center Thirteenth Largest empire ever in region Tenochtitlán Aztec century C.E. Complex city administration for political, to present Valley of Mexico military, and religious matters www.choices.edu  Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University  The Choices Program 4 Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads Part I est pyramid ever constructed is also located tax collectors, courts of justice, and a mail in central Mexico.) Teotihuacán was a shrine service. Local and regional markets attracted to pilgrims from throughout the region. Teoti- thousands from the surrounding area to buy huacán was also a trading hub, with a network goods. The Aztecs were renowned for their reaching to parts of northern Mexico and as far fine art and massive stone statues, and the south as present-day Guatemala. At its height, city housed a royal library filled with books the city was home to as many as two hundred documenting Aztec culture and society. By the thousand people. time the Spanish arrived in the early sixteenth century, the Aztec Empire stretched from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, reached How did the Aztecs establish their empire? as far south as present-day El Salvador, and In the seventh century, Teotihuacán and contained seven to fifteen million people. other central Mexican societies declined, pos- sibly because of food shortages. Warrior tribes also invaded the region from the north. Other The Spanish Conquest societies, like the Toltecs and later the Aztecs, Beginning in the fifteenth century, the eventually restored the Valley of Mexico as Spanish monarchy commissioned explorers a center of power by the middle of the four- to discover a faster trade route to Asia. What teenth century. these conquistadors found instead was a vast The city of Tenochtitlán, which the Az- continent, previously unknown to Europe, tecs built on an island in Lake Texcoco, came that was inhabited by thousands of different to rival the earlier wealth and glory of Teoti- indigenous groups and cultures. In the 1490s, huacán. The Aztecs based much of their society on the ideas and practices of other groups in the area. The nobility ruled Aztec society, and the Aztecs forced city- states they had conquered to pay their emperor, similar to the practice of the Maya Em- pire before them. The Aztecs also required these city- states to provide young men and women for labor and for human sacrifice. Human sacrifice had been practiced in the region as early as the second century, mainly FAMSI (Public domain via Wikimedia Commons). for religious purposes. The Aztecs expanded upon this practice, sacrificing thou- sands of people each year, as much for political control and intimidation as for hon- oring the gods. Tenochtitlán was a huge metropolis, with a complex political, military, and reli- The thirteenth month of the Aztec sacred calendar. The words next to the gious bureaucracy including pictures are Spanish translations of Aztec pictographs. The Choices Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads 5 Part I the Spanish set up a small colony called Santo city-states generally ruled themselves indepen- Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) on an dently. The arrival of the Spanish altered the island in the Caribbean and enslaved the in- balance of power within the empire and called digenous population to work on farms and in into question the supremacy of the emperor, gold mines. Santo Domingo not only provided Moctezuma. Many of the conquered groups Spain with resources and wealth, but also had been unhappy with Aztec power and, was a convenient location for them to further through a combination of coercion and force, explore the region. Cortés convinced many to join him against the The Spanish initially explored the Mexi- Aztec Empire. At the same time, Cortés main- can coast because of a labor shortage. Most of tained a weak alliance with the Aztecs in order the Caribbean’s indigenous population had to delay fighting until he was ready. died from European diseases. Diego Velázquez de Cuellos, governor of Santo Domingo, sent What happened in the fight for Tenochtitlán? the first Spanish expedition to Mexico in 1517 The Spanish and their allies entered the to find more slaves. Landing along the Yucatán city of Tenochtitlán for the first time in No- coastline, the Spanish glimpsed sophisticated vember 1519. The Spanish were awestruck by cities and civilizations before the Mayas Tenochtitlán’s size and grandeur. Most of them fiercely drove them away. The commander of had never seen a city this large, not only in the the second trip, which sailed from Cuba in region, but in Europe as well. 1518, traveled further up the coastline. This was the first time the Aztecs had direct contact with the Spanish. When the Aztec emperor Moctezuma heard about the Spanish, he and “ [W]hen we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land and that his advisors decided to wait and see what the straight and level Causeway going Spanish would do before taking any action. towards Mexico, we were amazed.... And some of our soldiers even asked What advantages did the Spanish whether the things that we saw were have over the Aztecs? not a dream.” Hernán Cortés led a third expedition to —Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Mexico in early 1519. From the beginning, one of Cortés’ soldiers, 1566 Cortés set his sights on the Aztec Empire, the most powerful empire in all of Mexico and Moctezuma, still unsure of Spanish inten- Central America. One of the greatest advan- tions, welcomed Cortés and his men into the tages the Spanish had in Mexico was that they city. Tenochtitlán was an island city, con- had some idea of what to expect upon arrival. nected to the mainland by three removable Cortés himself had fifteen years of experience bridges. Cortés, fearing a possible trap, cap- with indigenous Americans by the time he tured Moctezuma. For the next eight months, sailed to Mexico. The Aztecs and their emper- the Spanish directed Moctezuma’s rule and or Moctezuma, on the other hand, were unsure demanded large gifts of Aztec gold. Historians what to make of the large ships, horses, body are not sure why Moctezuma allowed this to armor, and European weapons of the Span- happen, but some believe he may have been ish and for many months did not know what worried about losing support if he admitted he Cortés and his men intended to do. had made a mistake in allowing the Spanish to Aztec rule over conquered groups was enter the city. based on demonstrations of power, such as Spanish rule in Tenochtitlán abruptly human sacrifice, and on demanding tribute ended in 1520 after the Spanish brutally mas- by force, rather than ruling over city-states sacred between eight and ten thousand Aztec directly. Aside from paying tribute, these nobles during a religious festival. The Aztec www.choices.edu  Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University  The Choices Program 6 Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads Part I The blockade of supplies and troop reinforcements eventually wore down Aztec resistance, and in August 1521, Tenochtitlán fell to the Spanish and their allies. Colonial Mexico After the fall of Tenochtitlán, the remain- Photograph by Kgv88 (CC BY-SA 3.0). der of the Aztec Empire quickly collapsed. The Spanish destroyed the city and built Mexico City upon its ruins. Fu- eled mainly by desires for riches and further explora- Mexican muralist Diego Rivera’s interpretation of the Spanish Conquest. tion, the Spanish extended their rule throughout the region. But although populace rose up in anger, and the Spanish, Spain officially established its colony—New suffering many casualties, were forced to flee Spain—in 1535, frontier wars and indigenous the city. resistance slowed Spanish expansion through- This was a major Aztec victory and signifi- out the colonial period. Nevertheless, by the cantly undermined support for the Spanish 1670s, New Spain was the richest and most among other indigenous city-states. The Span- populous Spanish colony. Of all of Spain’s ish spent the next year re-forming alliances colonies, including much of North America, with these groups, making plans to surround South America, and the Caribbean, Mexico Tenochtitlán and squeeze it from the outside. was the jewel in the Spanish crown. At the same time, the cohesion of the Aztec empire continued to unravel after the death of Moctezuma, who was killed during the How did colonization change uprising. Also during this period, a smallpox Mexican society? outbreak killed nearly 40 percent of the indig- A new society was created from the mix of enous population in less than a year. diverse cultures in colonial Mexico. European customs blended with indigenous practices The Spanish and their allies returned to and the traditions of enslaved Africans who Tenochtitlán in 1521. They blocked the city’s were brought to Mexico from Spanish colonies three bridges and used ships to try to cut the in the Caribbean. This created new musi- city’s supply of food and water. A massive cal styles, dances, and cultural and religious battle for Tenochtitlán lasted three months. practices. People’s daily lives also changed. The Aztecs were militarily superior and had For instance, many indigenous people who huge numbers of troops. The Spanish would lost their land moved to the city and adopted have been brutally defeated had it not been Spanish customs. Similarly, large landowners, for their indigenous allies who gave supplies isolated in rural areas, often adopted some in- and tens of thousands of troops to fight the digenous practices. Intermarriages and unions Aztecs. (There were more than two hundred between people of different backgrounds cre- indigenous warriors for each Spanish fighter.) ated new racial categories. Collectively called The Choices Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads 7 Part I mestizos, these groups quickly outnumbered colonial period. Only the discovery of gold the white population. and silver mines led to more permanent Span- The population also changed in other, ish settlements in the north. more tragic ways. A series of plagues through- out the sixteenth century decimated the What was the economy of indigenous population. Numbering more than New Spain based upon? twelve million at the end of the fifteenth cen- According to the Spanish crown, New tury, the indigenous population was less than Spain existed only for the economic benefit of one million by 1620. Spain. The economy of New Spain was based Social and economic opportunities in New on trade with Spain, exporting raw materials Spain were based on one’s race and back- and importing European manufactured goods. ground. For example, although whites held With few navigable rivers, transportation in a higher status than any other group, whites New Spain was expensive and slow. This born in Spain, called peninsulares, gener- meant that only the most profitable goods, ally had more opportunities than criollos, the such as gold, silver, and cacao, were exported. whites born in the colony. Indigenous people The colonial government discouraged other and freed Africans, on the other hand, had economic development in New Spain in order very few opportunities for social or economic to protect producers in Spain. advancement. Slaves, of course, had no op- Indigenous workers and African slaves portunities. provided the majority of labor in New Spain. The Spanish used these workers to excavate silver from mines in the north. Landowners How did the Spanish treat also put them to work on their haciendas, indigenous groups? large estates given to wealthy Spaniards by The Spanish considered indigenous peo- the Spanish crown. Early transportation in the ple legal minors and wards of the crown and colony was provided by indigenous porters Catholic church. Spanish authorities declared who would physically carry goods and people slavery of indigenous peoples illegal in 1542. to points of destination across the country. The Still, the colonial government often forced in- forced labor of indigenous workers also built digenous communities to pay a regular tribute most of New Spain’s cities and towns. The or tax, usually of money and labor. stone for many of the colony’s finest churches At the same time, the colonial govern- and palaces came from indigenous temples ment protected certain indigenous rights. and pyramids. Most significantly, the government preserved indigenous land ownership rights. Many times groups were forced off traditional lands, but What was the role of the Catholic this law allowed them to claim new lands on Church in New Spain? which to settle. Although the law was passed The Catholic Church was the most influ- mainly to ensure that indigenous communities ential institution in colonial Mexico. Many could afford to pay tribute, it allowed many Spanish explorers justified their conquests by communities to remain economically self- claiming they were spreading Christianity. The sufficient. aim of conversion was to totally replace tra- ditional religious practices with Catholicism. Spanish authority was strongest in the cit- Although indigenous communities were often ies, which were mainly located in central and receptive to this new religion, Christianity was southern Mexico. In the rural areas, particu- rarely accepted completely. Many indigenous larly to the north, indigenous groups remained groups combined religious practices, adopt- more independent. Revolts in the north were ing parts of Catholicism into their traditional successful in either slowing Spanish expan- religions. sion or stopping it altogether for much of the www.choices.edu  Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University  The Choices Program 8 Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads Part I “ They give worship to Christ and they serve their gods, they revere the Lord and they do not revere Him... they venerate Him, in short, only with the appearance of Christianity.” —José de Acosta, Spanish missionary, Gengiskanhg (CC BY-SA 2.0). 1588 Although frustrating to Spanish missionar- ies, this blending of new and old helped A Catholic church built from the ruins of a Zapotec temple. The Zapotecs, an preserve elements of indigenous group dating back more than 2,500 years, still live in southern Mexico today. indigenous cultures long after the colonial How did events in Europe affect period ended. Today, almost 90 percent of desires for Mexican independence? Mexicans identify themselves as Catholic. At At the start of the nineteenth century, the same time, many Mexicans still practice events in Spain changed the thinking of indigenous customs. For example, traditional many criollo elite. In 1808 France’s Napoléon healers, using indigenous medicines and reli- Bonaparte conquered Spain and put Spain’s gious practices, still provide services in many King Ferdinand VII in jail. The Spanish con- communities. vened their national assembly, which had not The Catholic Church was also important operated for many years, to rule in the king’s in the social and economic life of New Spain. absence. The assembly drafted a new constitu- The church provided the only education tion that called for popular voting rights and a in the colony, which was primarily geared representative government, and it demanded toward white males. In the absence of banks, increased revenue from the colonists in New the church became a major lending institution Spain. for the wealthy in New Spain. Furthermore, The criollo elite in New Spain, loyal to thanks to large gifts of money from elite fami- King Ferdinand, were fearful of a liberal con- lies, the church owned large portions of rural stitution that would threaten their traditional and urban land throughout the colony. privileges. They also felt squeezed financially by the economic demands of the new Spanish government. Resentment of the government Mexican Independence in Spain was added to long-existing criollo During the colonial period, most of New resentment of peninsulares. Although the Spain’s population, indigenous and European population of peninsulares in New Spain was alike, sincerely accepted the rule of the Span- quite small, competition between criollos and ish monarch over the colony. Many had never even considered gaining independence from peninsulares for status and position was fierce. Spain. Talk of Mexican independence began in ear- nest among the criollo elite a few years after King Ferdinand was imprisoned. The Choices Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads 9 Part I How was the majority of New which won control of much of southern Mex- Spain’s population involved in the ico. In 1813, he convened a popular assembly independence movement? that declared Mexico’s independence from Many in the mestizo and indigenous Spain. Before their new government could populations were frustrated with their limited take effect, the colonial authorities crushed the opportunities and increasing poverty. At the movement and executed Morelos. same time, many were loyal to the Spanish monarch. They generally directed their frus- How did Mexico gain tration toward the local government in New independence from Spain? Spain. Some criollos believed that the masses In 1814, Spanish guerrillas forced the could be organized to fight against the author- French out of Spain and King Ferdinand ity of peninsulares and the authority of the returned to his throne. The elite of New Spain Spanish government in the colony. expected gratitude for their loyalty, but Ferdi- Miguel Hidalgo, a criollo parish priest, nand, fearful of losing control of the colony, organized his largely mestizo and indigenous sent troops to Mexico to reassert Spanish rule. congregation in the first armed uprising Then, in 1820, a rebellion in Spain forced against Spanish rule. On September 16, 1810, the king to accept the liberal constitution the the date now celebrated as Mexico’s Indepen- Spanish assembly had drafted in his absence. dence Day, he called on his congregation to Many Mexican conservatives feared that the regain their land and freedom from the Span- reforms threatened to overturn the old social ish. He spoke particularly about the land that order. Criollos and peninsulares joined to- had been stolen from indigenous communi- gether and developed an independence plan ties by the peninsulares, an issue that was of to preserve their privileges. The Plan de Iguala central importance to most indigenous people. called for an independent Mexico ruled by a (In fact, most indigenous land had been confis- monarch, equality between peninsulares and cated by criollo landowners.) criollos, and Roman Catholicism as the of- ficial religion. In 1821, after limited fighting Hidalgo organized an army of twenty between Mexican and Spanish forces, Spain thousand, mostly farmers armed with ma- officially recognized Mexican independence. chetes and shovels, and led them to a nearby In the end, conservative Mexico had won inde- mining town to attack peninsulares. Hidalgo pendence from a much more liberal Spain. had little control over his followers, and the army went on a rampage, killing hundreds. Ironically, both peninsulares and criollos were What happened in Mexico targeted, as the poor rural masses found both after independence? groups equally arrogant. Lacking organization, Instability and hardship were character- the army dispersed after a few months, and Hi- istic features of newly independent Mexico. dalgo was executed by the colonial authorities. Disease had killed as many as six hundred thousand people during the insurgency. Min- Many criollos became frightened at the ing, agriculture, and industry had all suffered. peasant discontent that had been uncovered Many wealthy peninsulares and colonial and lost their enthusiasm for independence. administrators left the country after indepen- Fighting continued as small, independent dence, taking their money and skills with guerrilla movements of indigenous and mes- them. The silver mines had flooded and ma- tizo communities spread across the country, chinery had been ruined. U.S. and European protesting their oppression. José María More- merchants took over most of Mexico’s trade los, a mestizo parish priest who had been one and therefore collected most of the profits. The of Hidalgo’s officers, continued the rebellion country lacked infrastructure such as roads, south of Mexico City. He organized an army, bridges, and ports, and the new government mostly of mestizo and indigenous peasants, did not have the money to build more. Unable www.choices.edu  Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University  The Choices Program 10 Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads Part I Some indigenous com- munities did rebel against the new government. The OREGON COUNTRY DOMINION OF CANADA Caste War of the Yuca- (Claimed by U.S. & Britain) tán was a Maya rebellion lasting from 1847 to 1854. U.S. - Mexico Boston During this rebellion, the DOMINION OF CANADA San Francisco Boundary New York Mayas in the Yucatán UNITED STATES Philadelphia Washington Peninsula temporarily separated from the rest of Santa Barbara St. Louis Los Angeles Santa Fe A T L A N T I C San Diego Mexico. Although eventu- MEXICO O C E A N ally defeated, this rebellion Charleston Guaymas underscored the weakness of the central government San Antonio St. Augustine Chihuahua New Orleans Saltillo during the period. Mazatlan San Luis Potosí Havana P A C I F I C Guadalajara Queretaro What happened in Texas? Mérida O C E A N Mexico City Puebla Veracruz Mexico paid a high N 0 500 Miles Acapulco Oaxaca price for its instability in 0 500 KM the northern territories. Guatemala The weak central govern- Mexico’s boundaries in 1832, before the Mexican-American War. ment could not control Mexico’s frontier, the land that today comprises the to collect taxes due to their weak control of the U.S. states of Arizona, country, Mexico’s leaders resorted to borrow- California, New Mexico, and Texas. The region ing from foreign countries and soon amassed a was sparsely settled, and Mexico’s leaders, huge foreign debt. hoping to populate the area and protect it from hostile indigenous groups, encouraged the im- Mexico’s leaders also struggled to maintain migration of U.S. citizens. As settlers streamed political control after independence. For the into Texas, they increasingly clashed with first fifty years of independence, most Mexican Mexican authorities over land rights, slavery, leaders were in power for less than a year. Ac- and tax issues. cording to the constitution passed in 1824, the Mexican Congress, with two representatives In 1836, Texan settlers declared indepen- from each state, would elect the president. In dence from Mexico. Santa Anna personally led practice, most leaders came to power through a six-thousand-man army into Texas to defend military coups. Antonio López de Santa Anna, the territory, but after a few short battles, he the most powerful political figure of the era, was defeated. Nevertheless, Mexico refused to was in power eleven times over the period. recognize Texan independence. But the United The government was dominated by elites, States government did recognize an inde- most of them wealthy landowners with their pendent Texas, and in 1845, the region was own private armies. annexed into the United States. Wanting more land, the United States put pressure on the For the most part, elite struggles for power Mexican government to agree to extending the had little effect on the lives of the majority of border of Texas and to the sale of California Mexico’s people. Most peasants continued to and New Mexico. When the Mexican govern- work for wealthy landowners or on communal ment refused, the United States declared war. land in indigenous communities. The Mexican public had little contact with the ruling elite. The Choices Program Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University www.choices.edu  Between Two Worlds: Mexico at the Crossroads 11 Part I What were results of the war between Conclusion Mexico and the United States? You have just read about Mexico’s early The North American Invasion (known in history. You have read about early Mexi- the United States as the Mexican-American can societies and the conquest of Mexico by War) exposed Mexico’s shortcomings. The the Spanish. You have also read about the country lacked a strong central army, so much colony of New Spain, Mexico’s independence of the fighting was done by inexperienced, struggle, and the turmoil and instability that poorly equipped troops whose commanding characterized Mexico’s early years of indepen- generals pursued individual strategies instead dence. You have seen how Mexico’s fate was of following a unified plan. Although outnum- closely tied to that of its neighbor to the north, bered in most battles, U.S. troops dominated the United States. the fight, pushing Mexican armies back on In Part II of your reading you will consider every front. In a little more than a year, U.S. Mexico’s transformation from a weak, newly forces took over Mexico City. independent country with little control over Initially, most Mexicans provided little its population or its borders, to an economic support for the war, believing Mexico would powerhouse among developing countries. As have an easy victory over U.S. troops. The you read, keep in mind what you have read successful U.S. invasion inspired Mexican pa- in Part I. What challenges did Mexico’s early triotism, and many Mexicans became openly leaders face? In what ways would legacies of hostile toward the United States. They vowed Mexico’s past continue to affect its people? that U.S. troops would not be victorious. But How would Mexico’s relationship with the the Mexican criollo elite, fearful of further United States continue to play an important instability, surrendered to the United States, role in the country’s development? and in 1848 the government signed the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. In exchange for $15 million, Mexico surrendered half its territory to the United States. www.choices.edu  Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University  The Choices Program