Meteoro Reviewer PDF

TOPICS TO REVIEW 5. Air Masses, Fronts, Cyclones, Storms, Typhoons 1. Introduction to Meteorology and Atmospheric Science Overview of Earth's atmosphere, its layers, and Differentiation between air masses and fronts....

TOPICS TO REVIEW 5. Air Masses, Fronts, Cyclones, Storms, Typhoons 1. Introduction to Meteorology and Atmospheric Science Overview of Earth's atmosphere, its layers, and Differentiation between air masses and fronts. composition. Formation and hazards associated with severe Importance of meteorology in the Philippines. weather phenomena such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. 2. Warming of the Earth and the Atmosphere 6. Weather Patterns and Forecasting Incoming solar energy, temperature, and heat Methods and tools for weather forecasting transfer processes (conduction, convection, radiation). including satellite images and Doppler radar. Seasonal variations and their effects. Importance of mapping systems in predicting weather outcomes. 3. Air Pressure and Winds 7. Climate Change and Human Impact Atmospheric pressure concepts and readings. The science behind climate change and its Dynamics of wind formation and atmospheric local/global effects. circulation. Human contributions to climate change and strategies for prevention/mitigation. 4. Humidity, Condensation, Clouds, and Precipitation Understanding humidity, vapor pressure, and types of precipitation. Classification and identification of clouds. Introduction to Meteorology and Atmospheric Science Meteorology - Branch of Science concerned with the process ( mechanisms driving atmospheric behavior) and phenomena (observable outcomes resulting from the process) of the atmosphere, particularly related to weather and climate Weather - short tem (rainy or sunny) Climate - long-term (average weather patterns) Atmosphere - layer of gases that surrounds a planet, held in place by the planet’s gravitational pull 1. dynamic and life supporting systems that interacts with the land, oceans, and living organisms 2. regulating temperature 3. protect harmful solar radiation 4. provide air Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere 1. Primordial Atmosphere - 4.6 billion years ago - hydrogen & helium 2. Volcanic Outgassing - releasing of gases due to volcanic activity - Gases: water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, ammonia, and sulfur compounds - Oxygen: Absent 3. Early Atmosphere - around 4 billion years ago - Earth cooled = water vapor condensed = formed oceans = reduced amount of water in atmosphere - high levels of carbon dioxide = greenhouse effect = Earth warms = liquid water exist - Sulfur Oxide: toxic gas 4. Great Oxygenation Event - 2.4 billion years ago - Photosynthesis (Cyanobacteria) = Oxygen increase - development of complex life forms - extinction of anaerobic organisms  5. Modern Atmosphere Formation - millions of years - formation of ozone layer - nitrogen became dominant gas & carbon dioxide lessen 6. Current Atmosphere - 78% Nitrogen - 21% Oxygen - Argon, Carbon Dioxide, water vapor - Increased carbon dioxide = global warming = climate change Layers: 1. Troposphere: Closest to Earth, weather, people, plane 2. Stratosphere: ozone layer, calm air, & jets 3. Mesosphere: Meteors & Noctilucent clouds 4. Thermosphere: Auroras, heat, & space stations 5. Exosphere: Outer limit, merges with space, satellites, & thin air  ○ Tilt of Earth’s Axis: Solar Energy Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5°, causing varying exposure to sunlight throughout the Uneven Heating: year. ○ The Sun’s radiation does not heat Earth uniformly As Earth orbits the Sun, different parts of the due to its spherical shape. planet tilt toward or away from the Sun, ○ The equatorial regions receive direct sunlight, leading to seasons. leading to higher temperatures. Impact on Day Length and Temperature: ○ Polar regions receive sunlight at an angle, spreading ○ Summer Solstice: the energy over a larger area and resulting in cooler Occurs around June 21 in the Northern temperatures. Hemisphere. Heat Transfer The North Pole tilts toward the Sun, resulting in the longest day and shortest 1. Conduction: night of the year. Heat transfer through direct contact Higher solar angle leads to maximum between surfaces. heating of the surface. Example: The ground warms the air in ○ Winter Solstice: contact with it during the day. Occurs around December 21 in the 2. Convection: Northern Hemisphere. Heat transfer through vertical movement of The North Pole tilts away from the Sun, fluids (air or liquids). resulting in the shortest day and longest Example: Warm air rises because it is less night of the year. dense, while cooler air sinks, creating wind Lower solar angle leads to minimal and weather patterns. heating, causing colder temperatures. Significance: Drives atmospheric ○ Equinoxes: circulation and helps form clouds. March 21 and September 21: Day and 3. Radiation: night are nearly equal in length as the Sun Heat transfer through electromagnetic is directly over the equator. waves (no medium required). Effects on Climate and Ecosystems: Example: Sunlight warms Earth’s surface ○ Seasonal variations influence plant growth cycles, directly through radiation. animal behavior (migration, hibernation), and Causes of Seasonal Changes: agricultural productivity Air Pressure and Winds: Definition: What Causes Wind? 1. Wind is the movement of air from high-pressure ○ Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the areas to low-pressure areas. weight of air above a given point. 2. The greater the pressure difference, the stronger the ○ Measured in millibars (mb) or Pascals (Pa). wind. Key Points: Factors Influencing Wind Formation: ○ High Pressure: 1. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF): Air is sinking, leading to clear skies and The force that drives air from areas of high stable weather. pressure to low pressure. Example: High-pressure systems are often Example: Strong pressure gradients create associated with sunny days. faster winds. ○ Low Pressure: 2. Coriolis Effect: Air is rising, causing clouds to form and Due to Earth’s rotation, winds are deflected: resulting in rain or storms. To the right in the Northern Example: Low-pressure systems bring Hemisphere. unsettled weather, including typhoons. To the left in the Southern Measurement Tools: Hemisphere. ○ Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure. 3. Friction: Mercury barometer: Uses a column of Near Earth’s surface, friction slows wind mercury to determine pressure. and alters its direction slightly. Aneroid barometer: Compact and uses a Example: Winds over land are slower than sealed, airless chamber. winds over oceans. Altitude Effect: ○ Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. Example: At higher altitudes (e.g., mountain tops), pressure is lower, making it harder to breathe. Atmospheric Circulation Global Wind Patterns: 1. Trade Winds: Blow from east to west near the equator. Example: Used historically by sailors for ocean crossings. 2. Westerlies: Blow from west to east in mid-latitudes. Example: Responsible for much of the weather in temperate zones. 3. Polar Easterlies: Blow from east to west near the poles. Circulation Cells: 1. Earth’s atmospheric circulation is divided into three main cells in each hemisphere: Hadley Cell: From the equator to 30° latitude. Warm air rises near the equator, causing rain (e.g., rainforests), then descends at 30° (e.g., deserts). Ferrel Cell: Between 30° and 60° latitude. Air moves opposite to the Hadley and Polar cells, creating variable weather. Polar Cell: From 60° latitude to the poles. Cold air descends at the poles, creating high-pressure zones. Local Wind Patterns: 1. Sea Breeze: During the day, land heats up faster than the ocean, causing air to rise over the land and be replaced by cooler air from the ocean. 2. Land Breeze: At night, the land cools faster than the ocean, causing air to rise over the ocean and be replaced by cooler air from the land. Humidity, Condensation, Clouds, and Precipitation Examples: Definition: On a humid day, the air feels sticky because of high water vapor content. Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor Lower temperatures often lead to condensation, present in the air. forming dew or frost. Measured in terms of: i. Absolute Humidity: The actual mass of Vapor Pressure water vapor in a given volume of air (grams per cubic meter). Definition: ii. Relative Humidity (RH): The ratio of current water vapor to the maximum amount ○ The pressure exerted by water vapor in the of vapor air can hold at a given temperature atmosphere. (percentage). ○ Two components: 1. Actual Vapor Pressure: The portion of Key Concepts: atmospheric pressure caused by water vapor. 2. Saturation Vapor Pressure: The maximum Saturation: Occurs when the air holds the vapor pressure air can hold at a specific maximum amount of water vapor possible at a given temperature. temperature. Relationship: Dew Point: The temperature at which air becomes ○ Higher temperatures increase saturation vapor saturated, and water vapor condenses into liquid. pressure, allowing air to hold more moisture. Types of Precipitation Rain: Liquid water drops larger than 0.5 mm. Drizzle: Fine, uniform drops smaller than 0.5 mm. Snow: Ice crystals forming when temperatures are below freezing. Sleet: Small ice pellets formed when rain freezes before hitting the ground. Hail: Balls or lumps of ice formed in thunderstorms with strong updrafts. Classification and Identification of Clouds Cloud Formation: ○ Clouds form when moist air rises, cools, and reaches the dew point, causing condensation around tiny particles (e.g., dust). Cloud Classifications: ○ Based on Altitude: High Clouds (above 20,000 feet): Cirrus: Thin, wispy clouds. Cirrostratus: Transparent, sheet-like clouds. Cirrocumulus: Small, white, and patchy clouds. Middle Clouds (6,500–20,000 feet): Altostratus: Greyish clouds covering the sky. Altocumulus: White or grey puffy clouds. Low Clouds (below 6,500 feet): Stratus: Uniform, grayish clouds, often covering the sky. Stratocumulus: Low, lumpy clouds with gaps. Nimbostratus: Dark, thick clouds bringing steady rain. ○ Based on Vertical Development: Cumulus: Fluffy, white clouds with a flat base (associated with fair weather). Cumulonimbus: Towering clouds associated with thunderstorms, heavy rain, or hail Air Masses, Fronts, Cyclones, Storms, Typhoons 1. Air Masses: ○ Definition: Air masses are large bodies of air with uniform temperature, humidity, and pressure. They typically form over large areas such as oceans or continents, and their characteristics are shaped by the region over which they form. ○ Types of Air Masses: Continental (c): Formed over land, these air masses are typically dry. Example: Continental Polar (cP) air from northern regions. Maritime (m): Formed over oceans, these air masses are moist. Example: Maritime Tropical (mT) air from tropical oceans brings warm, humid conditions. Polar (P): Cold air masses that originate in polar regions. Example: Polar Maritime (mP) from the North Pacific. Tropical (T): Warm air masses that originate near the equator, bringing warm, moist conditions. Arctic (A): Extremely cold air masses from the Arctic regions. 2. Fronts: ○ Definition: A front is a boundary that separates two air masses with different temperature, humidity, and pressure characteristics. Fronts are responsible for weather changes and often bring precipitation. ○ Types of Fronts: Cold Front: Occurs when cold air pushes into a region of warm air. This can lead to abrupt changes in weather, often producing thunderstorms. Weather: Sharp temperature drop, heavy rain, possible thunderstorms. Warm Front: Occurs when warm air advances into a cooler air mass, gradually rising over the cooler air. Weather: Steady, moderate precipitation, followed by warmer temperatures. Stationary Front: When neither air mass is strong enough to replace the other, causing prolonged periods of cloudy, rainy, or snowy weather. Occluded Front: Forms when a cold front overtakes a warm front. This can lead to complex weather patterns, including rain, snow, or thunderstorms. Formation and Hazards of Severe Weather Phenomena 1. Thunderstorms: ○ Formation: Thunderstorms form when warm, moist air rises, cools, and condenses, releasing latent heat. The rising air creates strong updrafts that can generate lightning, thunder, heavy rainfall, and even hail. ○ Hazards: Lightning: Can cause fires, power outages, and injuries. Heavy Rain: Leads to flash flooding and property damage. Hail: Damages crops, vehicles, roofs, and windows. Strong Winds: Can cause trees to fall, power outages, and structural damage. 2. Tornadoes: ○ Formation: Tornadoes form when warm, moist air collides with cold, dry air, creating violent wind shear and rotating columns of air. This rotation is further intensified in severe thunderstorms. ○ Hazards: Destructive Winds: Tornadoes can produce winds in excess of 300 km/h, capable of destroying buildings and infrastructure. Flying Debris: A significant threat to both property and human life. 3. Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones: ○ Formation: Tropical cyclones, known as hurricanes (Atlantic), typhoons (Western Pacific), or cyclones (Indian Ocean), form over warm ocean waters (greater than 26°C). These storms are powered by the latent heat of water vapor evaporating from the ocean surface. ○ Hazards: Strong Winds: Can cause extensive structural damage and power outages. Storm Surges: A rise in sea level caused by the low-pressure center of the cyclone, leading to coastal flooding. Heavy Rain: Results in widespread flooding, particularly in low-lying areas. ○ Typhoons in the Philippines: The Philippines is located in the Pacific typhoon belt, making it one of the most typhoon-prone countries in the world. PAGASA tracks and forecasts typhoons, providing early warnings through their typhoon signal system (Signal #1 to #4) to indicate wind strength and potential impact. Example: Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) in 2013, one of the deadliest and most powerful storms, impacted the Visayas region, causing extensive damage and loss of life. Weather Patterns and Forecasting Methods and Tools for Weather Forecasting 1. Satellite Images: ○ Function: Satellites capture images of cloud cover, storm systems, and weather patterns from space, providing real-time data that helps meteorologists track and predict weather changes. They are especially important for monitoring tropical cyclones like typhoons. ○ Example: PAGASA uses geostationary satellites to track typhoons in the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), giving the public and government timely warnings. 2. Doppler Radar: ○ Function: Doppler radar tracks precipitation intensity, wind direction, and speed. It detects the motion of precipitation particles, helping to identify storm rotation (important for tornado detection) and rainfall amounts. ○ Example: PAGASA uses Doppler radar systems to track severe weather like typhoons and thunderstorms, providing crucial information for early warnings. 3. Weather Stations: ○ Function: These stations collect local weather data such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and air pressure. This data is used to predict local weather conditions and support weather warnings. ○ Example: PAGASA operates weather stations throughout the Philippines, collecting and analyzing data for weather forecasts. 4. Numerical Weather Prediction Models: ○ Function: Supercomputers simulate the atmosphere using complex mathematical models. They process data on temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind patterns to predict weather events up to several days in advance. ○ Example: PAGASA uses numerical models to predict the movement and intensity of typhoons and other severe weather. Importance of Mapping Systems in Predicting Weather Outcomes 1. Weather Maps: ○ Isobars: Lines on a map connecting areas of equal atmospheric pressure. Isobars are used to identify high and low-pressure systems, which drive wind and weather patterns. ○ Isotherms: Lines that connect points of equal temperature. These maps help meteorologists understand temperature gradients and predict fronts or temperature changes. ○ Satellite Images: Provide images of cloud cover and weather systems, helping to track typhoons and storms.  ○Example: PAGASA regularly issues weather maps that show typhoon tracks, pressure systems, and rainfall forecasts, helping people prepare for storms and floods. 2. Typhoon Tracks: ○ Track Maps: Display the predicted path of typhoons. PAGASA provides these maps to warn regions that may be affected by an incoming typhoon. ○ Storm Surges: Typhoon maps also show potential storm surges, indicating areas that could experience flooding from rising sea levels. Climate Change and Human Impact The Science Behind Climate Change 1. Greenhouse Effect: ○ The greenhouse effect occurs when greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) trap heat in Earth's atmosphere, warming the planet. This natural process is vital for life on Earth but has been intensified by human activities. 2. Global and Local Effects of Climate Change: ○ Rising Temperatures: Global warming causes temperatures to rise, affecting ecosystems, agriculture, and human health. ○ More Intense Typhoons: As the atmosphere warms, typhoons can become more intense, bringing stronger winds, heavier rainfall, and greater storm surges. ○ Sea-Level Rise: Melting polar ice caps and glaciers are causing global sea levels to rise, which poses a threat to low-lying countries like the Philippines. ○ Example: Typhoon Yolanda was a prime example of an extremely powerful storm potentially exacerbated by the changing climate. Human Contributions to Climate Change 1. Fossil Fuels: ○ Burning coal, oil, and natural gas for energy is the largest source of greenhouse gases. These emissions trap heat and contribute to global warming. 2. Deforestation: ○ Cutting down trees reduces the planet's ability to absorb CO₂, exacerbating the greenhouse effect. 3. Agriculture: ○ Agricultural activities, such as livestock farming and rice paddies, release significant amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Strategies for Prevention and Mitigation 1. Renewable Energy: ○ Transitioning to solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power reduces reliance on fossil fuels, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. 2. Reforestation: ○ Planting trees helps absorb CO₂ and reduces the impacts of deforestation. 3. Energy Efficiency: ○ Improving energy efficiency in homes, industries, and transportation systems helps reduce overall energy consumption and emissions. 4. Climate Change Adaptation: ○ PAGASA works on improving the country's climate data collection and modeling to adapt to changing weather patterns and prepare for more extreme weather events