Abnormal Psychology Unit One PDF

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOG Y UNIT ONE Throughout chapter 2, we discussed many facets of the mental disorder’s classification, the DSM-V and its main characteristics, as well as its advantages and disadvantages. In this part we will try to understand the different causes of abnormal...

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOG Y UNIT ONE Throughout chapter 2, we discussed many facets of the mental disorder’s classification, the DSM-V and its main characteristics, as well as its advantages and disadvantages. In this part we will try to understand the different causes of abnormal behavior, and explore the causal factors as well as study the viewpoints which speak of the development and maintenance of abnormal behavior. Comprehension of these causes in the prevention and treatment of abnormal and ill- adaptive behavior is significant. 3.1 Objectives After completing this part you should be able to: 1. Explain the causes of abnormal behavior; 2. Describe the biological factors contributing to abnormal behavior; 3. Explain the psychological factors causing abnormal behavior; 4. Analyze the socio-cultural factors contributing to abnormal behavior; and 5. Describe the integrative models explaining abnormality.  Theorists have abandoned the notion that any one factor can explain abnormal behavior; they favor an integrative model. Match each of the following scenarios to its most likely influence or influences: Influenced by: Scenarios 1. The fact that certain phobias are more common than others A.) Behavioral B.) (such as fear of heights and snakes) and may have led to the Biological C.) Emotional species' survival in the past indicates genetically pre- wired D.) Social phobias may be. What effect is this proof for? E.) Developmental 2. Juliet's husband Rome was a jobless jerk who spent his life chasing other women than his wife. Juliet, happily divorced for years, cannot understand why the smell of Rome’s brand of aftershave causes her to become nauseated. Which influence best explains her response? 3. Age 16, Bimby finds it difficult to adapt to the recent separation of his parents than his 7- year-old sister. This may be explained by what influences? 4. A traumatic ride on a Ferris wheel at a young age was most likely to have been the initial cause of Georgette’s fear of heights. Her strong emotional reaction to heights is likely to maintain or even increase her fear. The initial development of the phobia is likely a result of 5. influences; however, 6. ______________ influences are likely perpetuating the phobia. 3.3 LESSON 3: Etiological Theories of Mental Disorders The next chapter introduces the major etiological theories of abnormality that have dominated the field of its modern history. Most mental health professionals now take an integrated biopsychosocial approach to understanding mental disorders, i.e. the result of a combination of biological, psychological, and social vulnerabilities and stresses that come together and feed off one another. Theory is a set of ideas that provides a framework for asking questions about a phenomenon and for accumulating and interpreting information about that phenomenon. The nature-nurture question frequently asked: "Is the cause of the disorder something biological, in the nature of a person, or in the person's history, something social to which the person was exposed?" People may carry diathesis i.e., a vulnerability for a particular disorder but he/she has to experience a type of stress or trigger to develop the disorder. The full- blown disorder emerge only when the diathesis and the stress come together in the same individual. Biological theories typically attribute psychopathological symptoms to three causes: a) brain dysfunction; b) biochemical imbalances, and c) genetic abnormalities. The brain can be divided into three main regions: 1. Hindbrain--which closest to the spinal cord, includes all the structures located in the posterior part of the brain. Medulla--which is responsible for regulating largely unconscious functions such as breathing and circulation. Pons--which is important in sleep and arousal. Reticular Formation--which is a network of neurons related to sleep, arousal and attention. Cerebellum--which is concerned with balance and the coordination of movement. 2. Midbrain--located in the middle of the brain which contains: Superior Colliculus--which relay control movement and sensory information. Inferior Colliculus--which regulate responses to reward. 3. Forebrain--which includes the structures located in the front part of the brain. Cerebral Cortex--which is involved in many of our most advanced thinking processes. Thalamus--which handles incoming and outgoing signals. Hypothalamus--which is responsible for regulating basic biological needs: hunger, thirst, temperature control. Pituitary Gland--which regulates other endocrine glands. Brain dysfunction can result from injury caused by accident or from diseases that cause deterioration. In schizophrenia for example, the cerebral cortex does not effectively function causing delusions (unreal beliefs) and hallucinations (unreal perceptual experiences). We will consider other psychological disorders that appear to be associated with dysfunction in specific areas of the brain. A number of chemicals were required for the brain to work efficiently and effectively: the neurotransmitters and the hormones. A. Neurotransmitters refer to about a dozen different chemicals that are made by neurons and then used for communication between neurons during the performance of mental or physical activities.  Neurotransmitters are similar to chemical keys that fit only into specific chemical locks. When a neuron "fires" the action potential that is produced travels along the membrane of the axon to the axon terminals located at the end of the axon. Arrival of the action potential causes the synaptic vesicles to approach the cell membrane and empty their contents into the synapse. Chemicals, released by neurons, that carry information across the synapse are known as neurotransmitters. Whether directly or indirectly, neurotransmitters produce one of two effects. If their effects are excitatory in nature, they help to depolarize--decrease the negative electrical charge of--the membrane of the second neuron, making it more likely that the neuron will fire. If their effects are inhibitory, they will help hyper-polarize--increase the negative electrical charge of--the membrane of the second neuron, thus making it less likely that the neuron will fire. The amount of neurotransmitters in the synapses is associated with specific types of psychopathology. It can be affected by two processes: 1. Reuptake--occurs when the initial neuron releasing the neurotransmitter into the synapse reabsorbs the neurotransmitter, decreasing the amount left in the synapse. 2. Degradation--occurs when the receiving neuron releases an enzyme into the synapse that breaksd o w n t h e neurotransmitter into other biochemicals. When one or both of these processes malfunction, they results on an abnormally high or low levels of neurotransmitters in t hesynapse.Here'swhat neurotransmitters potential change on our behavior: As the result of the presence or absence of neurotransmitters within neuron, a complex system of biochemical changes takes place. Psychological symptoms may be the c onsequencesofchangesi n neurotransmitter system functioning. B. Hormones are substances secreted by endocrine glands that regulate a wide range of bodily processes affecting organs, muscles, and other glands in the body. The endocrine system is made up of numerous glands that are located throughout the body: To enable to perform its essential functions, every cell of our body contains a set of biological blueprints contained in chromosomes-- strand-like structures found in the nuclei of all c e l ls.Theyare c o m p o s e d o f a substance known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is made up of several simpler component arranged in the form of a double helix. Chromosomes contain thousands of genes--segments of DNA that serve as basic units of heredity. Working in the complex combinations and in concert with the forces in the environment, our genes determine all aspects of our biological makeup. Abnormalities in genes are much more common than in the structure or number of chromosomes. Most disorders are associated with multiple abnormal genes and not with single abnormal genes.  Psychological theories emphasize that mental disorders result from either unconscious conflicts, thoughts and beliefs, classical and operant conditioning, dysfunctional interpersonal dynamics, poor regulations of emotions, or pressure to conform to societal norms. A. Behavioral theories focus on the influences of punishments and reinforcements in producing behavior. The principles or processes of learning according to behaviorism theories are: A. Classical conditioning--has been used to explain people' s seemingly i rrational responses to a host of neutral stimuli. B. Operant conditioning--the shaping of behaviors by providing rewards for desired behaviors and punishment for undesired behaviors. C. Modeling--learning new behaviors from imitation of behaviors modeled by important people in our lives. D. Observational learning--takes place when a person observes the rewards and punishments that another persons receives for his/her behavior and then behave in accord with those rewards and punishments. B. Cognitive theories argue that thoughts or beliefs--not rewards and punishments--shape our behaviors and the emotions we experience. Some of the most maladaptive behavior and negative emotions are the results of broad beliefs called global assumptions, such as: I should be love by everyone for everything I do. It is better to avoid problems than to face them. I should be completely competent, intelligent, and achieving in all I do. I must have perfect self-control.  C. Psychodynamic theories suggest that all normal or abnormal behavior, thoughts, and emotions, are influenced to a large extent by unconscious processes. It began with Freud referring to libidinal and aggressive drive as the forces motivating human behavior. Psychodynamics studies the transformations and exchanges of these "psychic energy" within the personality. Its focus is in the connection between the energetics of emotional states in the id, ego, and superego as they relate to early childhood developments and processes. At the heart of this processes is the ego, which Freud envisions as battling with three forces: the id, the super-ego, and the outside world. The id is the unconscious reservoir of libido, the psychic energy that fuels instincts and psychic processes. The ego serves as the g e neralmanagerof personality , making decisions regarding the pleasured that will be pursued at the id's demand, theperson'ssafety requirements, and the moral dictates of the superego that will be followed. The superego refers to the repository of an individual's moral values, divided into t h e c o n s c i e n c e - the internalization of a society's rules and regulations - and t h e e g o - i d e a l - t h e internalization of one's goals. Hence, the basic psychodynamic model focuses on the dynamic interactions between the id, ego, and superego. Subsequently, psychodynamics attempts to explain or interpret behavior or mental states in terms of innate emotional forces or processes. D. Humanistic theories argue that normal or abnormal behaviors comes from the pressure of society to conform to certain norms, with the fulfillment of his/her innate capacity for goodness and for living a full life. They recognize that environment can play a strong role in our happiness or unhappiness. Without undue pressure from society and family, individuals naturally move toward personal growth, self- acceptance, and self- actualization--the fulfillment of their potential for creativity, love, and meaning. Under pressure, people experiences conflict because of the differences between their true self and the ideal self. This conflict often led to emotional distress and unhealthy behaviors.  E. Family Systems theories see psychological disorders not as a problem of the individual but as an indication of a dysfunctional family system. The particular form that any individual's psychopathology takes depends on the complex interactions among the family' s cohesiveness, adaptability to change, and communication style. F. Emotion-focused theories focus on people's ability to understand and regulate their emotions. They view poor regulation of emotions as being at the core of many types of psychopathology like, anxiety, personality disorders, and substance abuse. Sociocultural theories suggest that we need to look to the larger society to understand people's problems. A wide range of mental health problems may occur under the following risk factors:: a. ) Socio-economic disadvantage. b.). The disintegration and upheaval of society due to famine, war, and natural disasters. c.). Social norms and policies that stigmatize and marginalize certain groups. d.). Implicit or explicit rules about what types of abnormal behavior are acceptable. In contrast to the psychological and biological perspectives proposed by psychologists and psychiatrists, sociologists have long emphasized the influence of various socio-cultural factors on mental disorder. 1. Socio-economic Status—Social class is one of the most important causal factors in mental illness. This has been clearly and consistently demonstrated by studies related to mental disorder. 2. Gender—The next social factor associated with mental illness is gender. There are conflicting findings as to which gender is more likely to become mentally ill. In most studies women are found to have a higher rate of mental disorder, but some others find men to be more predominant or no difference between the sexes. 3. Age—Another social factor that has been associated with mental disorder is age. Studies conducted before the 1980’s suggested that older persons were more likely to suffer from mental disorders. This was attributed to societal neglect of the elderly eventually resulting in institutionalization, where the neglect can continue. Yet, more recent studies in the 1980’s and 1990s show that the elderly are the least likely among all age groups to become mentally ill. 4. Race and Ethnicity—Another social factor in mental disorders is race and ethnicity. Like gender, these have not been consistently found to be related to mental illness in general. While many studies have shown higher rates of psychological stress among minorities, the standard explanation has been that these groups experience more social stresses stemming from discrimination, poverty and cultural conflict. 5. Urban Environment—An important social factor implicated in mental illness is the urban environment itself. Community surveys indicate higher rates of mental disorders in urban areas, particularly the inner city, than in rural areas, including the suburbs and small towns. I 6. Social Networks—Having caring and close relationships strongly protects against most non psychotic forms of mental illness. Supportive social networks, particularly family, are crucial in times of crisis. 7. Migration—Immigrants are not a homogenous group. Economic immigrants (those who chose to migrate in search of a better life) often have better than average mental health. In contrast, refugees from war and persecution have often suffered experiences that affect their mental health adversely.  3.4 LEARNING INSIGHTS The causes of abnormal behavior are complex and fascinating. We can say that psychological disorders are caused by nature (biology) and by nurture (psychosocial) and we would be both right and wrong. To identify the causes of various psychological disorders, we must consider the interaction of all relevant dimensions i.e. genetic contributions, the role of the nervous system, behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional influences, social and interpersonal influences, and developmental factors. Thus, we have arrived at a multidimensional integrative approach to the causes of psychological disorders.. 1) What are the biological underpinnings of abnormal behavior? 2) What are the major psychological factors of abnormal behavior? 3) What is the basic idea underlying the socio-cultural perspective on abnormal behavior? 4) What is the diathesis-stress model? Carson, R. C., Butcher, J. N., & Mineka, S. Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life, 11TH edition. Pearson Education:New Delhi Davison, G.C., Neale, J.M., Kring, A.M. Abnormal Psychology, 9th edition. Wiley & Sons:USA. Sarason, I.G., Sarason, B.R. 1998. Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of Maladaptive Behaviour. Prentice-Hall of India: New Delhi.