Memory Summary Sheet PDF

Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? Memory Key terminology 2.1.1 Know the stru...

Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? Memory Key terminology 2.1.1 Know the structure and process of memory and information processing: Input Encoding Memory is like a computer hard drive. You need to Processing 1. Put information in, Storage 2. Store it until needed, Retrieval 3. Find and use it! Output or… 1. Encode it, 2. Store it, 3. Retrieve it! a. Input = Sensory information in the environment (things we see/smell/hear/taste/touch) - With a computer, information is input through a keyboard or a camera - Our eyes, nose, ears, mouth and skin are like our keyboards and cameras– they are used to input information b. Encoding = The transformation of sensory information into a form which can be used and stored by the brain - The brain processes the information we receive from our senses– it pays attention to important informations and makes decisions based on it - We unconsciously and deliberately store some sensory information - This process requires the encoding of sensory input into an electrochemical memory trace that can be stored into the brain, much like a computer There are 3 ways of encoding information to be used by our memory system– 1. Acoustic encoding - the process of storing sound information 2. Visual encoding - the process of storing images 3. Semantic encoding - the process of storing the meaning and concepts of information c. Processing = The operations we form on sensory information in our brain (encoding conversion) d. Storage = The retention of information in our memory system e. Retrieval = The recall of stored memories f. Output = The use of recalled information in some way (refers to the information we recall) - Just like a computer, the brain produces an output… - Output for computer = printed document for example - For us, output is a behaviour that is produced - For memory, the output is the stored information we retrieve (known as retrieval) Input Encoding (processing) Storage Retrieval Output 2.1.2 Understand the features of short-term and long-term memory, including: STM a. duration LTM b. capacity Duration Capacity Duration and capacity Rehearsal - Memory is super important! We can store a large amount and range of types of information that help us Displacement understand and interact with the world around us Interference - We have 2 main memory stores: a short-term memory store and a long-term memory store. - These are characterised by key differences in the length of time that information is stored (duration) and how  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? much information can be stored (capacity) Short-term memory store (STM) - Sensory information (input) first enters the STM - This is a temporary store that only lasts for around 18 seconds (duration) and holds about 7 items (capacity) of information - STM encodes information acoustically through repetition of information– otherwise the information will be forgotten - By rehearsing (repeating) this information, it can be encoded and transferred to the long-term memory store. Long-term memory store (LTM) - Long-term memory can last for minutes or up an entire lifetime (duration), and it can hold a potentially unlimited (capacity) amount of information - Encoding in the LTM is largely semantic, but can be visual or acoustic Why do we forget things? Information in our STM can be forgotten through a process known as displacement. This is when new incoming information pushes out older information as we exceed the limited capacity (7) of short-term memory. Forgetting in LTM is thought to be due to a variety of reasons; some memories simply decay as the memory trace is not used, while others may be overwritten by new information, and this is called interference. It may even be the case that we cannot find the memory because we have lost the link (like a broken URL when we are searching for a site on the internet). Capacity Duration Encoding Forgetting Short-term memory Around 7 bits of Around 18 seconds Acoustic Displacement information without rehearsal Decay Long-term memory Potentially limitless A few minutes to a Mainly semantic Decay lifetime Interference Retrieval failure The stores and processes of memory can be visualised with the Multi-store Model of Memory:  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? 2.1.5 Understand the structure and process of memory through the multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Sensory Register Shiffrin, 1968) Attention including strengths and weaknesses of the theory: Trigram a. sensory register Iconic memory b. the capacity of short-term memory Echoic memory c. the duration of short-term memory Modality Free d. the capacity of long-term memory Primacy e. the duration of long-term memory Recency f. the role of attention in memory g. the role of rehearsal in memory - Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin developed the Multi-store Model of Memory (1968) by drawing conclusions from memory experiments conducted by other researchers - Using these research pieces, they were able to identify 3 distinctly different stores in our memory system– 1. The Sensory Register 2. Short-term Memory 3. Long-term Memory - Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that memory stores differ from each other in the way information is encoded, their capacity and duration, and how information is retrieved. (the multi-store model of memory) Sensory register - The first stage of memory where information from the environment is briefly stored - Lasts for a very short time (less than a sec) - Large capacity but limited duration - Information is stored in its sensory form (visual/auditory/etc.) - Filters and holds sensory information briefly before transferring to STM through paying attention (focus on certain information) - Sensory overload: We constantly receive vast amounts of sensory information from our environment, but we don't process all of it consciously. - Selective attention: We focus on specific sensory inputs while filtering out others, like concentrating on a conversation at a noisy party. - The sensory register briefly holds all incoming sensory information before it's either processed further or discarded. - Information that receives attention moves to short-term memory for further processing; unattended information quickly fades. - Each primary sense is believed to have its own sensory register, with visual sensory registers being the most extensively studied. Ionic = the sensory register for visual information that lasts for around 1 second before visual information decays. Echoic = the sensory register for auditory (sound) information that lasts for a few seconds before sound information  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? decays. Gustatory = taste Olfactory = smell Tactile = touch Short Term Memory - Capacity: Stores information for 15-30 seconds, with potential for longer retention through rehearsal. - Can hold various types of sensory information, particularly visual and auditory. (MODALITY FREE) - Typically holds 5-9 "chunks" of information, as identified by George Miller in 1956. - Chunking: Information is often grouped into meaningful units to optimise memory storage. - Atkinson-Shiffrin model: Describes the transfer of information from attention to short-term memory. The role of rehearsal - The MSM suggests that repeating information over and over helps to hold it in the STM for longer. If the information is rehearsed for long enough, it gets transferred into the LTM-store. - Rehearsal = repeating things out loud or in our heads in order to remember them, such as saying a phone number over and over again Long Term Memory - Long-term memory can hold information indefinitely and it has potentially limitless capacity. Long-term memories are thought to be mainly organised semantically, that is, according to their meaning. Strengths Weaknesses The MSM can be used for researchers to expand and The Multi-store Model of Memory (1968) has been improve their research, due to its good structure of the criticised for overstating the role of rehearsal as a STM. As it is derived from multiple studies, it serves as a good means of transferring information into long-term foundation to base new research off of. storage. Clearly we do not need to repeat every piece of information over and over again in order to remember it for a period of time. Sometimes we remember things just because they are more meaningful to us. There is a lot of evidence to support the theory of It is also unlikely that we have only one type of separate memory stores. long-term memory. Cases of amnesia patients (Cases of amnesia show how brain injury can damage demonstrate that while some long-term memories long-term memory, while short-term memory remains intact. are damaged, other types remain intact. Other evidence from memory experiments have also shown One such patient, Clive Wearing, suffered damage to the the distinction between short-term and long-term memory.) part of his memory that stored personal events, such as Ben Murdock (1962) conducted an experiment to provide evidence going to university. However, other parts of his memory for the Multi-store Model of Memory. He discovered something were intact, such as his memory of how to play the piano. called the serial position effect, which is the tendency to recall This demonstrates that we do not have one long-term more words at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a memory store, but perhaps several different types. word list. Murdock explained that the primacy effect occurs because words at the beginning of the list had been rehearsed and transferred into long-term memory. The recency effect is the result of the words still being held in short-term memory. Words in  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? the middle of the list were recalled less because there had not been enough time to rehearse them into long-term memory before they were displaced from short-term memory. 2.1.3 Understand retrograde and anterograde amnesia, including: Amnesia Anterograde amnesia - Although the capacity of LTM is potentially limitless and its duration can be up to a lifetime, we still forget things. Retrograde amnesia - Sometimes people experience a special type of forgetting, called ‘amnesia’. - Amnesia is a condition characterised by forgetting or memory loss, particularly after a brain trauma. Amnesia = Memory loss, often through accident, disease, or injury - There are 2 types of amnesia– retrograde and anterograde. a. the term ‘retrograde amnesia’ = A memory condition that affects recall of memories prior to an injury to the brain - Where a patient who has suffered a brain injury cannot remember the information BEFORE the injury - Can be specific to one memory (e.g. the one incident that caused the injury) or can be limited to a specific time frame - In severe cases, patients can forget who they are and where they come from - It’s possible for people with retrograde amnesia to regain some, or even all of their lost memory b. the symptoms of retrograde amnesia - Patient can’t remember information before accident - Forget who they are/where they are from (serious) c. the term ‘anterograde amnesia’ = A memory condition that means new long-term memories cannot be made, normally caused by brain injuries - The inability to store any new long-term memories following a brain injury - Intact STM– they can process sensory information at that point in time, but cannot lay down any new memories that last beyond a few minutes - Ability to transform information to the LTM is damages - As it affects memories following the brain injury, the patient typically regains their long-term memories from before the incident d. the symptoms of anterograde amnesia - Can’t make new long-term memories - Process information but cannot move it to LTM, so it is only temporary Famous case: Henry Molaison (H.M.) - Underwent brain surgery to relieve him from seizures associated with epilepsy - His hippocampus was damaged, so he got anterograde amnesia (no new memories) as well as retrograde amnesia (no past memories) - he was actually able to recall childhood events, but nothing a few years prior to the surgery 2.1.4 Understand the active process of memory through the Theory of Reconstructive Memory (Bartlett, 1932) Active reconstruction Schema including strengths and weaknesses of the theory: Omission a. how schemas are formed Transformation b. how schemas influence memory Familiarisation Rationalisation The concept of ‘schemas’  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? - Before we thought of the brain as a computer, psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett came up with a theory of how memory worked– The Theory of Reconstructive Memory Memory & Schemas - Bartlett proposed that memories are not stored as an exact form as in a computer– instead, our memories are notes about what we experience, like a brief outline on a notepad - When we recall our ‘notes (memories)’, we simply retrieve the notes and elaborate on them using our general knowledge about similar events - This means that our memories are not exact copies of an event but an interpretation, aka. an active reconstruction Active reconstruction = Memory is not an exact copy of what we experience, but an interpretation or reconstruction of events that are influenced by our schema (expectations) when we remember them again. - The “general knowledge Bartlett suggests we use to elaborate with is referred to as schemas– they are unique to us and develop over time through our own experiences Schema (memory) = A packet of knowledge about an event, person, or place that influences how we perceive and remember. - Schemas are packets of information, like scripts, about events or situations e.g. we have a schema for going to a restaurant, which includes a general understanding of that event (being ushered to a table, selecting food from a menu, paying the bill, etc.) - When we recall going to this specific restaurant, we draw upon this schema to reconstruct the event itself– this may mean that we recall choosing a meal from a menu when in fact there was a set menu, which is a subtle reconstruction of the event How schemas are formed - According to Bartlett, our schemas are formed throughout our lives though experiences - Just like we build languages through an increasing vocabulary, we build schemas through personal experiences - Although some schemas are shared within a particular culture/community (e.g. meaning of going to school), other schemas are unique to us (e.g. what it means to be human). How schemas influence memory - Using various pictures and stories, Bartlett tested how schemas influence memory. He found that; - Over time, people recalled the pictures and stories differently because they were influenced by their schemas - Schemas influence our memory and cause us to ignore or change details when we recall them - In particular, Bartlett found that recall displayed: 1. Omissions - we leave out unfamiliar, irrelevant, or unpleasant details when remembering something. Our schema simplifies this information - E.g. A child has a schema for “birds” that include pigeons, sparrows, and robins but omits penguins– the child then visits a zoo and sees penguins in an exhibit 2. Transformations - details are changed to make them more familiar and rational - E.g. A child sees a dog on the road and identifies it to be a dog– later sees a cat and calls it a dog because it also has 4 legs and a tail 3. Familiarisation - we change unfamiliar details to align our own schema - E.g. A child who has only interacted with cats encounters a dog for the first time– may feel fearful due to its unfamiliarity 4. Rationalisation - we add details into our recall to give a reason for something that may have not originally fitted with a schema - E.g. A student constantly fails his psychology tests– instead of attributing their performance to lack of effort, he rationalises by believing that psychology is too difficult and he is not inclined towards it  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? Strengths & Weaknesses of Bartlett's Theory of Reconstructive Memory Strengths Weaknesses Real world practical application Barlett did the analysis of the results by himself, so results could be viewed as being subjective. Helps us understand why memory may be distorted Barlett was unscientific in his methods, so not too focused on standardised procedures and controls. Theory has led to the development of cognitive interviews (eyewitness testimonies may be affected by schemas, so there is now a better way to prevent it) His methods can be viewed as a test of memory in the real world, so seen as ecologically valid (as he asked participants to recall stories which is considered a realistic use of memory) Studies Serial reproduction Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts Repeated reproduction Reliability Background Statistical analysis - Bartlett had conducted many experiments using folk/picture stories, thus making him use ‘War of The Ghosts’ as Standardised procedure his base story for this study. Extraneous variables - It was unfamiliar to the students and colleagues at Cambridge University Mundane Realism - He hoped the unfamiliarity would shed light on the reconstructive nature of memory because participants would be more likely to draw to their schemas Aims - To test the nature of reconstructive memory - Whether personal schemas do or don’t influence what is remembered Procedure - Participants (20) were asked to read ‘The War of The Ghosts’ TWICE – they were then later asked to recall it - Bartlett used both serial and repeated reproduction to test the recall of the story - SERIAL = participants were asked to read the story and then retell it to another participant 15 and 30 mins later. The participant would tell another participant, and so on. (chinese whisper type) - REPEATED = the same participant was asked to write out the story after 15 mins. They were then asked to recall the story several minutes, hours, days, months, and years later. Results - Bartlett used qualitative analysis to look for an interpret changes to the recalled stories - Repeated reproductions tended to follow a similar form, meaning that the theme or outline of the first reproduction tended to remain in later reproductions. - For both types of recall participants tried to make sense of the odd story by giving it meaning. This resulted in additions or changes such as making connections or giving reasons for events (rationalisation). For example, participants often recalled the original sentence of “something black came out of his mouth” as “a man's dying breath” or “foaming at the mouth”. - Participants also tended to leave out unfamiliar or unpleasant parts of the story, particularly the unfamiliar place names. Lots of details became familiarised and simplified. For example, “canoe” became “boat” and “hunting” was  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? recalled as “fishing”. Conclusion - Bartlett interpreted the results as evidence for the active and constructed nature of memory. Participants did not recall the story fully or accurately. Instead, they omitted details that did not fit with their schema and some details were altered by the influence of their schema. Strengths Weaknesses Use of a story - is more naturalistic as a test of everyday Use of a story - unfamiliar, being illogical and containing memory instead of nonsense trigrams or lists of digits strange words/concepts. In this way, remembering the used by other researchers. (ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY) story was not an everyday task or realistic use of memory after all. (LACK OF ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY) - Also, was conducted in a lab which isn’t really ecologically valid Reliability - bartlett replicated his procedure with various Low generalisability - small sample size of 20 means the stories and pictures and found the same results (same findings cannot be applied to the wider public accurately tendency to omit and transform the material), giving strength to the study Demand characteristics - it is argued that Bartlett did not give correct and clear instructions so participants may have guessed answers - Also, no standardised procedure making it less scientific —---------------------------------- Peterson and Peterson (1959) Short-term Retention of Individual Verbal Items. Background - Lloyd and Margaret Peterson conducted a lab experiment to investigate the true duration of short-term memory - As we can hold information in the STM by rehearsing it, they could only test the actual duration of a STM-trace by interfering with the rehearsal process - To prevent participants from rehearsing, the petersons got them to count backwards in 3s Aim - To test the true duration of short-term memory Procedure - 24 students tested individually - Each student had to repeat out loud a set of letters they heard (3 consonants, aka. a trigram). Immediately after, they were asked to say out loud a 3 digit number read to them by the experimenter, and then count backwards from that number in 3s or 4s from that number (e.g. BFP…. 709, 706, 703,...) - When signalled by a red light, each student had to recall the trigram. Each student had to recall 8 times (time delays of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 secs) - In total, the procedure was repeated 48 times using different trigrams - A second experiment asked participants to do the same tasks, but some were given time to repeat the trigram before counting backwards (silently or vocally) Results - The results showed that the longer each student had to count backwards, the less able they were to accurately recall the trigram  Pearson Edexcel Level 1/Level 2 (9–1) GCSE Psychology Memory – How does your memory work? - When asked to count backwards after 3 seconds, they remembered over 80% of the trigrams correctly but after 18 seconds the percentage of correct recall was