Medical Anthropology Exam #2 PDF

lOMoARcPSD|25377382 Medical anthropology exam #2 Medical Anthro:Humn Bio.& Hlth (Binghamton University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Josh Yakubov (joshuayakubov@gmai...

lOMoARcPSD|25377382 Medical anthropology exam #2 Medical Anthro:Humn Bio.& Hlth (Binghamton University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 9/30/22: Growth: Why Study Growth?: - Changing in growth - Child growth as an indicator of population health - Children’s height and weight are a big indicator in a population as a whole - Reflection of a communities health Factors that Influence Growth: - Nutrition: growth is at front line of responses to nutritional challenges - Lack to access, has an effect in health/stature - Disease: something at impairs functions - If you are ill, it is difficult for you to eat - Physical Environment: - Stuff in the environment can affect - examples: lead poisoning (not reversible), pollution - Social Environment: - Living a long time with stress based on social factors, affects birth weight - examples: psychosocial stress, sociolosocial stress Genotype VS Phenotype: - Genotype: heritable information (genes) carried by an individual - Genes in an individual - Genes are not the only thing that affects an individual - Phenotype: expression of the interaction between genotype and environment - Gene and environment has an interaction which shows in an individual - Can have multiple from the same genotype - Phenotypic Plasticity: ability to adjust somatic, behavioral, or physiological traits in response to interaction with the environment - example: hemoglobin levels (altitude levels) Human Life History Stages: - Use evolutionary theory to explain life stages - Amount of time in these stages is based on environment - Gestation: (prenatal stage) - Rapid growth and tissues - Growing different cells - Infancy: (birth through weaning; includes neonatal and postnatal stages) - Stage when you are born until you are three - Neonatal: 0-1 month Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 - Postnatal: 1 month to 3 years - Get food away from parent - Human babies are helpless (some mammals are not helpless during this stage) - Childhood/Juvenile Period: - 3 years to 10-12 years - You are getting your teeth and then losing all of them - Adolescence: - Sexual maturation and growth spurts (varies for each individual) (12-18) - Adulthood: - Start to see a decline in out physiological functions and fertility - Old Age/Senescence: Life History Theory: - An organism’s life history is the sequence of events related to survival and reproduction that occur from birth through death. - All about the time: why is this happening at this time? (adaptive) - example: whale has a larger gestation period than a squirrel - example: human only having one baby at a time vs a cat who has several - Life history theory is a field in evolutionary biology that explains the timing of these events as a product of natural selection. - Life history traits include: - Development: (growth pattern) - Pattern of growth is different for all mammals - Reproductive Events: - examples: age at reproduction, number of offspring, mortality (lifespan) - Age at which a species reproduces, number of offspring, lifespan Resource Allocation Trade Offs: - Allocation Problem: resources are finite - Trade-off between growth and maturation versus reproduction - If we devote energy to growth, but then we can't use it for something else - We can either use it for growth or reproduce - Variation in Life History Traits Determined By: - Environmental unpredictability - Mortality rates - Explains for why does some species reproduce later - If the environment is unpredictable, mammals will reproduce early - example: having babies not because you want to, but because you don’t know the future - If the environment is stable, mammals will reproduce later Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 - Slow is with humans - Why are some slow and some fast? Graph shows that we spend different times in different periods based on mammal: - Infantile: Humans have this long dependent period - A caretaker must help support the baby - Chimps are much more functional and ability to help themselves - Juvenile Period: there's a lot to learn in our human world (culture) - Takes a long period of time to be successful in human society - This is an adaptation, which allows us to be more successful Gestation: - Full term pregnancy: 38 weeks; divided into trimesters - First Trimester: zygote grows into an embryo - Genetic abnormalities and certain infectious diseases can result in spontaneous abortion (10% of the time babies are lost at this stage) - Micronutrient deficiencies contribute to congenital diseases - example: folate and spina bifida - A mother who is exposed to a bacteria or gene abnormalities can affect the zygote - Very sensitive to genetic abnormalities - Environment is big on healthcare - Prenatal vitamins are important for spitaltufida - Second Trimester: rapid skeletal growth, weight gain, fat deposition of the fetus; maturation of respiratory, gastrointestinal and circulatory systems - Undernutrition, infection or stress of the mother can result in decreased linear growth and decreased birth weight - If the mother isn't getting good nutrition or different infections, nutrition and stress has an affect on growth and height - example: have small babies due to malnutrition and stress (small babies have a higher risk for chronic diseases) - Third Trimester: rapid growth in weight and deposition of fat; final maturation of respiratory, gastrointestinal and circulatory systems - Undernutrition, infection or stress of the mother can result in decreased Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 birth weight Birth Weight: - Stabilizing Selection: average weight has highest survival probability - Natural selection favorites normal births that have survival - You want babies to be bigger - Bigger babies are a risk to mothers health - Trade-off between Maternal Condition & Offspring Size: - Why do we have a standard for offspring size? - Health with baby VS mother - Lower Birth Weight: reduced probability of offspring survival - Increased maternal condition - example: baby is struggling, but mother is fine - Higher Birth Weight: increased probability of offspring survival (except at extreme weight) - Decreased maternal survival, ability to care for existing children, chances of reproducing again - example: mother is struggling and babies are fine (bad for babies already born and reproducing for it happening again) Determinants of Birth Weight: - Maternal Age: younger maternal age (35 years) (gerstarctiic) associated with lower birth weight - Both are associated with lower birth weight - Younger person is still growing on their on and growing another person (fight for persons) - Parity: first borns are lighter than later borns - First borns are the smallest usually (result of selection) - Nutritional Status of Mother: - examples: current dietary behavior, weight, height, or fatness - Malnutrition of mother is not good, the height and weight of the baby is affected - Infectious Disease: - Smoking: negative impact on birth weight - Babies are going to be small - Altitude: higher altitude associated with lower birth weight - Sex: females are lighter than males - Females are usually smaller - Gestational Age: preterm babies are lighter than full term (babies that are born earlier) Breastmilk & Breastfeeding: - Breastmilk Composition: Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 - Sugar, fat, protein, micronutrients - Designed to be consumed frequently (more sugar, less fat than other mammals) - example: harbor seals drink milk that is high in fat, which lasts longer - Human breast milk is made out of sugar, and the baby has to be fed more frequently - Mismatch between needing to breastmilk more frequently and life, so infants suffer - Hormones that promote tissue growth - Antibodies - Help to get rid of infections - Not in formula, only in breastmilk - Breastmilk is not just “food” - Duration: - Varies from 0 to 3 years - People who have a C-section, have a harder time breastfeeding than people who have a V-section (way that milk is turned on) - WHO recommendation: - Exclusive breastfeeding up to 6 months of age, with continued breastfeeding along with appropriate complementary foods up to two years of age or beyond. - Only breastfeeding up to 6 months, and up until age 2 with food Worldwide Exclusive Breastfeeding Rates: 41% overall meeting 6 months of breastfeeding Breastfeeding Rates in the US (2017): - Reasons for early weaning, supplementation or non-initiation of BF - Workforce demands (most places don’t have childcare at work, time consuming) - Don't want to do in public settings (traveling, live your life) (stigma) - example: eating a meal in a bathroom stall - Lack of information and support for BF - Widespread availability of formula - The best way to feed your baby is actually feeding your baby - Breastfeeding is better, but formula will do - Mislead people about the health benefits of formula (can do better to support breast milk) Politics of Bottle Feeding: - 1960s and 1970s – global decline in breast feeding ➜ marketing of formula Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 - Breastfeeding was going down, and number of formula companies were rising - Issues in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) - Instructions for mixing formula were in English - Told it was better for your baby , and didn’t have the ability to read it - Contaminated water supply ➜ infant diarrheal disease - Baby was drinking contaminated water, which makes them go to the bathroom - Infants were dying to this (more risk to having diarrhea as an infant) - Doctors and nurses given incentives to encourage bottle feeding - Resulted in 1977 boycott of the Nestlé corporation - 1981 the World Health Assembly adopted an international code for marketing of breast milk substitutes - Still in place today, and still illegal marketing is taking place Marketing Formula in Philippines in 2018: - 34% BF rate - Nestlé (and others) found to be offering health care professional free trips, meals and other incentives for brand loyalty - Internet marketing (mommy bloggers) - Had mothers say this is better for your child, when it wasn't (easy to go down this path) - Disguising advertising of formula as nutrition information - Marketing in hospitals where staff recommend specific brands Breastfeeding & Growth Standards: - Growth Charts: - Growth is different between breastfeed and formula feed - standard vs. reference - Breastfed babies grow more slowly and are leaner than formula-fed babies - Use of inappropriate standard → categorizing BF babies as “falling behind” on growth Weaning: - Time period when solid/complementary foods are introduced (usually around 6 months) (critical time/ high risk of diseases) - Introduction of complementary foods - Best Foods: variety of nutrient dense foods, variety of animal and plant sources - example: starchy foods: rice cereal, oatmeal - Worst Foods: cooked cereals (high in energy, low in micronutrients; potential for contamination and exposure to pathogens) - When access to clean water and sanitation is limited, risk for infection is Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 increases - Mixing with water can lead to diarrheal disease - Losing a ton of water is dangerous - Bad cycle continues on and on Weaning: critical time for health and growth - Growth disruptions dependent on quality of supplemented foods - Decreased antibodies available through breast milk - Diarrheal disease peaks in weaning period Childhood: - Weaned but still dependent for food, protection, etc. - example: can't go to the grocery by themselves - Relatively slow growth - High metabolic costs of brain - Maturation of dietary and immunological systems - Health Risks: - Growth and cognitive deficits due to undernutrition - Obesity to due overnutrition - Child Growth: relatively constant but slow growth (childhood age that growth is relatively constant compared to others) Juvenile Growth: - Slowest rate of growth since birth - Fairly stable & predictable - Until adolescent growth spurt (AGS) Adolescent Growth Spurt: - Typically begins 2 years later in boys than girls - ~10 vs. 12 years - The girls go through puberty first, then boys are later - Dramatic growth in most body measures (huge amount of growth that happens fast) - Long bone length - Vertebrae - Skull & facial bones - Heart - Lungs How do we know when a child is undernourished?: - Underweight: low weight for age Downloaded by Josh Yakubov ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|25377382 -