Media & Politics Folien PDF

11/28/2024 Excellent Final Reports 2023 – The Encroaching Threat on Media Pluralism in Bangladesh: Why the Digital Security Act of 2018 Is Being Used to Suppress the Freedom of Speech of Bangladeshis – Two Kinds of Dog: Apple Daily and Ta Kung Pao’s News Articles...

11/28/2024 Excellent Final Reports 2023 – The Encroaching Threat on Media Pluralism in Bangladesh: Why the Digital Security Act of 2018 Is Being Used to Suppress the Freedom of Speech of Bangladeshis – Two Kinds of Dog: Apple Daily and Ta Kung Pao’s News Articles and Editorials during the Storming of the Legislative Council Complex and 2019 Yuen Long Attack 2022 – Power of the media: Comparative analysis of how competing local news media outlets’ columns and articles framed the “fraudulent election results” controversy post 2022 Kenya General Election – Illustrating the Ideal Leader: The Use of Social Media in Joko Widodo’s Political Campaign – Demystifying the “Great Resignation”: A Case Study of US Media on Labor Conditions during the Pandemic (2020 – 2022) – Indonesian Media on Fuel Price Increase: A Comparative Analysis between KOMPAS and Media Indonesia 17 Special Treatments to Make Up You may be given a special treatment when you cannot attend a class and you miss a submission deadline for legitimate reasons. That is, you may be given participation points for an in‐class activity, be allowed to take a make‐up for the exam, and be allowed to submit an assignment after the submission deadline. However, you must email your instructor to explain the situation within two days after the absence; and then, you must submit a certain document to prove that there was a legitimate reason for the absence. Such documents include doctor’s note or a receipt from a hospital or clinic for sickness, a document from Academic Office for a condolence leave, a document from Career Office for job‐hunting. There might be some other legitimate reasons, so you can talk to the instructor. 18 9  12/2/2024 Rough Sketch of Media History 17-18C. Printed Newspapers in Western countries – In 1860s, newspapers introduced to JPN along w/ the end of samurai era Newspapers for politics, governing, education & entertainment Some newspapers were to spread political opinions In 1920s, radio broadcasting begins in Western countries – 1925 Radio broadcasting begins in Japan In 1940s-50s TV broadcasting in Western countries – In 1950s, Japan, the Philippines, Thailand, S. Korea, China begin TV broadcasting – ENG (electronic news gathering) introduced in the 1970s 1990s Internet for commercial use – Cell phone for commercial use In the 2000s, Social Network Services (SNS) introduced – Rise of smartphones – Facebook (2004), Twitter (2006), Instagram (2010), TikTok (2016) 3 >"inverted - Pyramid" style of reporting Video: Frontline Reporting This video is about the news media and wars in the United States It also shows the change of technology for news media Print media (newspapers & magazine) – Morse code (telegraph wire to radio signal) Inverted pyramid writing style for journalism Photography – film camera Motion picture film camera Radio Television – In the early state, it was based on live broadcasting & filmed contents – ENG (electronic news gathering) based on video camera in the 1970s – Broadcasting satellite – Cable television, satellite television 4 2  12/2/2024 Old and New News Media Legacy Media (Press) – Newspapers, news magazines – TV news shows, debate shows, documentaries Vertical media, “Daily Us” – Professional journalists Reporters, editors, news anchors, directors – (Infotainment - talk shows, debate shows, variety shows) Digital Media – Multimedia – Internet media: websites (blog), social network services Horizontal media, “Daily Me” – Professionals and ordinary citizens Truth (2015) - Dan Rather & Pre. Bush military service controversy 5 What is News in the Past? “what newsmakers (politicians and other political actors) promote as timely, important, or interesting” – Events (elections, conflicts), Issues (problems, policy), Political Actors (speech, action) “from which news organizations select, narrate, and package” “for delivery to people who consume and use it in various ways from entertainment to political action” (p. 20) – News (9th ed.) by Bennett in 2012 6 3  12/2/2024 What is News in 2016? “news consists of (a) the reporting of actions and events (b) over a growing variety of publicly accessible media (c) by journalism organizations and an expanding spectrum of other content producers including ordinary citizens” (p. 25) “the news is largely a freewheeling entity shaped by a combination of commercial forces in the news business, technologies of communication perfected by politicians and their media consultants, and the tastes and personal entertainment habits of citizens” (p. 27) – News (10th ed.) by Bennett in 2016 9 What Role the Media Play in Society presented for legacy media Surveillance – Public: Media highlight issues and events for the interests of the public – Personal: Media serve personal interests of the audience Interpretation – Media present a meaning and context of an issue or event and speculate its consequences Socialization – Media teach individuals basic values and behaviors in a certain culture – → national identity (Imagined Communities by B. Anderson) Manipulation – Media are players of the game of politics by H. Lasswell 10 5  12/2/2024 Journalism still Matters “95 percent of the stories containing original information ‘came from traditional media—most of them from newspapers’” (Bennett, 2016, p.5) “gatekeeping by the legacy press is less effective and…less important” (Bennett, 2016, p.25) Legacy media outlets are being criticized by citizens and politicians in many countries – “fake news” “post-truth” “alternative fact” It is true that legacy media outlets make mistakes and frame issues from certain view-points Should we replace them with publicity by governments, political parties, companies, and other organizations, and citizen journalism? 11 Era of Confusion? UNESCO report finds that 6 out of 10 influencers don’t use basic fact-checking practices – MSNBC, Nov 28, 2024 – According to the survey, 6 out of 10 influencers “admitted to not verifying the accuracy of information before sharing it with their audiences.” And the survey found that nearly 42% “use the number of likes and views of the online content as the primary factor to determine online source credibility.” 12 6  12/5/2024 Martial Law in South Korea How conservative and liberal newspapers framed the issue Yomiuri Newspaper Editorial Asahi Newspaper Editorial December 5, 2024 December 5, 2024 South Korea's "martial law": South Korea's "emergency martial Concerns over chaos caused by law" is a foolish move that will authoritarian rule destroy democracy – South Korean President Yoon Suk Yeol, – The president declares martial law may have been trying to break the on the pretext of "political deadlock in national politics by using stagnation." An incident that should the authoritarian tactic of "martial law," never happen in a democratic but he ended up backing himself into a country has occurred in South Korea. corner. Although the state of emergency was – If South Korea's domestic politics were lifted about six hours later, President to fall into chaos, it would inevitably Yoon Suk Yeol must recognize his have a negative impact on Japan-South responsibility for putting democracy Korea relations and the security at risk and sincerely face the public's environment in East Asia. judgment on him, including his own https://www.yomiuri.co.jp/editorial/ future. 20241204-OYT1T50278/ https://www.asahi.com/articles/DA3 S16099479.html?iref=pc_rensai_long _16_article https://academic.oup.com/ssjj/article/10/1/59/1616275 3 What is Politics? What is Politics about? Politics means “striving to share power or striving to influence the distribution of power, either among states or among groups within a state” (Weber) Politics is about “who gets what, when, and how” (Lasswell) “Politics is above all a contest” (Wolfsfeld) Politics is made of policymaking and power struggle (Otake) 4 2  12/5/2024 Elements of Politics What makes State? – Government, people, territories – And what else? Is Taiwan not China? – State can be considered as a country What makes Nation? – A people who shares a homeland, history, culture, language, views, etc. Only one ethnic group? What is a member of the United Nations? – Nation and state can be used interchangeably What is Government? – A group of people that control the state and nation – Legislative, executive, and judicial branches Kuni (国) in JPN can be a state, government, & country 5 Forms of Government 1 Liberal or Western Democracy – People (citizens) participate in political decision making (popular sovereignty) How do the people participate? – Elections - Representative democracy » Referendum for certain issues – People enjoy human rights and avoid oppressions by the government Freedom of Speech, Press, etc. – Unitary or Federal – What is a political party in liberal democracy? – Media outlets are typically private entities Public broadcasting – BBC, NHK 6 3  12/5/2024 Forms of Government 2 Non-liberal “democracy” – Single party ruling state Is People’s Republic of China a democracy or authoritarian state? – Communist Party of China People’s democratic dictatorship – Democratic centralism – Political power belongs to the people, but the Communist Party represents and acts on the behalf of the people Gov’t owns and/or controls media outlets – Media outlets are the mouthpiece of the State and the Party – What is republic? Power coms from the people; not monarchy – People’s Republic of China – Democratic People’s Republic of Korea – United States of America Governments somewhere between liberal democracy and authoritarian 7 Freedom of Speech & Press in Liberal Democracy Gov’t works for the interests of the people (general public) Though, those in Gov’t may take care of particular people, companies, & organizations better than others People who demand something from the Gov’t have to speak up – Freedom of speech protects such people behaviors The Press finds such people’s problems that need the Gov’t help – Press: News media outlets The Press also can update what the people wants by doing the public opinion survey – Those in the Gov’t stay there for several years The Press also needs to investigate something wrong done by the Gov’t to make Gov’t work for the people – Watchdog journalism; investigative journalism – Freedom of Press protects such behaviors of the Press 8 4  12/5/2024 What is Power in Politics? “the chance (possibility) of a man or of a number of men to realize their own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action” (Weber) Political power in liberal democracy – Separation of Powers (checks & balances) Legislative, executive, and judicial powers – Legal and physical power Power through money (budget) – Do media outlets exercise power? Influence 9 Four Theories of the Press by Sibert et al. Authoritarian Theory Libertarian Theory Social Responsibility Theory Soviet Communist Theory – Originally published in 1956 – Early stage of the Cold War 10 5  12/5/2024 Libertarian Theory Developed – Adopted by England after 1688 & in the United States Purpose of the Media – To inform, entertain – but chiefly to help discover truth & to check on Gov’t in democracy – Objective journalism How control media outlets – By “self-righting process of truth” in “free market place of ideas” & by courts Against the active role of Gov’t in the market and Gov’t ownership of media What forbidden – Defamation, obscenity, wartime sedition Ownership of the Media – Chiefly private 11 Social Responsibility Theory Developed – In the United States in 20 C. Purpose of the Media – To inform, entertain, sell – but chiefly to raise discussion b/w groups of different views – Civic or public journalism (Bennett, 2016, p.57) How control media outlets – Community opinion, consumer action, professional ethics What forbidden – Serious invasion of recognized private rights & vital social interests Ownership of the Media – Private unless Gov’t has to take over to insure public service 12 6  12/5/2024 Authoritarian Theory Developed – In 16 C. & 17 C. England, widely adopted and still practiced in some states Purpose of the Media – To support and advance the policies of the Gov’t in power; to serve the state Inform & educate people or “subjects” How control media outlets – Gov’t licensing, censorship, etc. What forbidden – Criticism of political machinery & officials in power Ownership of the Media – Private, public (state-owned) 13 Soviet Communist Theory Developed – In the Soviet Union (a socialist state, 1922-91) Purpose of the Media – To contribute to the success & continuance of the Soviet socialist system, & especially to the dictatorship of the party To propagate ideas and policies of the Party (Gov’t) ; to educate the people How Control media outlets – Surveillance & economic or political action of Party (Gov’t) What forbidden – Criticism of Party and its objectives – What about political satire? Ownership of the Media – Public, State-owned – “mouthpiece of the party” 14 7  12/5/2024 State Media Ownership Djankov et al. (2003) studied 97 countries “countries that are poorer, more autocratic, with lower levels of primary school enrollment, and with higher levels of state intervention in the economy also have greater state ownership of the media” (p. 373) “countries with greater state ownership of the media have less free press, fewer political rights for citizens, inferior governance, less developed capital markets, and inferior health outcomes” (p. 373) State-owned media outlets vary – Some under the strict control of the Gov’t – Some established by the Gov’t but enjoy autonomy NHK in Japan is regarded as public broadcasting Established by the Broadcasting Law that demands impartiality of broadcasting Prime Minister appoints members of NHK Management Committee Committee appoints President of NHK, but they do not control the contents NHK’s income comes from viewing fee paid by people, not Gov’t fund Too liberal or conservative Watchdog against the Government or puppet of the Gov’t? 15 Private Media Ownership What if a major media outlet is owned by a politician or a very political person in a democracy? Media oligarchs are emerging in some democracies, along with conglomeration and digitalization of media outlets. – Owners of media conglomerates are directly & indirectly involved in politics. Election candidates, party leaders, donators – See Tapsell (2017) Though, media outlets tend to be political in many countries even if they were not owned by politicians. – Major newspapers are not owned by politicians in today’s Japan, but some tend to support LDP, the ruling party, while others are critical of LDP. – Conservative media vs. Liberal media 16 8  12/12/2024 Dog Metaphors for Journalism in Democracy Watchdog Journalism – Independent press for the interests of the people, not the interests of those in power “The key to democratic journalism is holding those in power accountable for how well they use government to serve the public interest” (Bennett, 2016, p.89) – Investigative journalism to uncover something hidden by those in power – Leak from informants (whistle-blowers) However, if informants may want to use media outlets to attack their political opponents – Asking tough questions – Though, Donohue et al. (1995, p.119) argue “the fourth estate watchdog role…is not only unachieved but is fundamentally realistic.” 3 Dog Metaphors for Journalism in Democracy Lapdog Journalism – “total submissiveness to authority, total lack of independent power, obliviousness to all interests except those of powerful groups” (Donohue, et al., 1995, p.120) – However, it is important for the media to report what Gov’t says & is doing – Access journalism: accessing to important people is more important than making them accountable to the public No tough questions, no controversial topics Guard dog Journalism – Proposed by Donohue et al. – “perform as a sentry not for the community as a whole, but for those particular groups who have the power and influence to create and control their own security systems” – “be suspicious of all potential intruders” (Donohue et al., 1995, p.116) Power Oligarchy – “media integration into the power structure, but on a more or less equal basis with other powers” – “directly oppose other powers…or team up with them to attain certain ends” (Donohue et al., 1995, p.121) 4 2  12/12/2024 “Chinese Watchdog” Journalism in 90s Economic reforms introduced in late 1970s by Deng Xiaoping – “Socialism with Chinese characteristics” or socialist market economy – Commercialization of many industries began; media, too In China, Gov’t & the Party censor media outlets In the 1990, however, the Party encouraged media outlets to uncover corruptions of local officials – Premier Zhu Rongji (under the leadership of Jiang Zemin) – Watchdog, Lapdog, or Guard dog? Though, there are journalists who try to be watchdog in China – “Since 1978…a generation of Chinese journalists has come of age in spite of the harassment, the firings, and the jailing” (Bandurski et al. 2010, p.2) 5 The Post Newspapers vs. United States (President Nixon) in 1971 Defense Secretary, Robert McNamara, has had analysts to study the Vietnam War for the future – The study results in the Pentagon Papers – McNamara serves Pre. John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson Both are Democrats See The Fog of War to know more about him A whistle-blower (informant), Daniel Ellsberg, provides NYT with Gov’t secret documents; based on the documents, NYT reports wrongdoings of Gov’t (Presidents) – Daniel Ellsberg Military analysist who works for the McNamara Study as an employee for Rand Corporation He gets copies of the Pentagon Papers to let the American public know Gov’t wrongdoings about Vietnam War He provides NYT with the copies 6 3  12/12/2024 The Post (cont’) NYT begins to report wrongdoings of the government (Presidents) – Neil Sheehan He covers the war in Vietnam, working for UPI But the Nixon Admin’ gets the court order to stop NYT from publishing further articles; publishing articles based on the P. Papers would against the Espionage Act Ben Bradlee, Editor-in-Chief of The Washington Post, wants to catch up with NYT about the Pentagon Paper coverage – Bradlee used to be JFK’s friend (lapdog or guard dog?) – Katharine Graham (Owner and Publisher of WP) has good relationship with McNamara (lapdog or guard dog?) She has unexpectedly become Publisher, so this film is also about her struggle in men-dominating business world – Ben Bagdikian obtains copies of the P. Paper from Ellsberg – But publishing articles may make the gov’t arrest Graham and Bradlee An example of the transformation of a newspaper from lapdog to watchdog 7 News Media vs. Gov’t In the First Amendment, the Founding Fathers gave the free press the protection it must have to fulfill its essential role in our democracy. The press was to serve the governed, not the governors. – Hugo L. Black, (NYT, WP vs. United States, 1971). 1st Amendment of US Constitution – Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 8 4  12/12/2024 Media & Politics in Films You can learn the media and politics from popular films Spotlight (2015, USA) – Investigative journalism – Spotlight Boston Globe’s spotlight team uncovers child sex abuses by Catholic priests. The Insider (1999, USA) – A producer of “60 Minutes” (CBS) attempts to interview a man who used to work for that a tabaco company and knows wrongdoings of that company DVD is Available in APU Library Thank You for Smoking (2005, USA) – Political satire: how a PR specialist works for the tobacco industry as a spin doctor DVD is Available in APU Library 9 All the President’s Men Based on true events, the Watergate Scandal – DVD is available at APU Library Two young reporters of WP attempted to uncover wrongdoings of Pre. Richard Nixon (1969.1-74.8) & his aids – Investigation, interview w/ insiders, & leaks Epoch-making investigative journalism case – Weird criminal case (1972.6): A group of men broke into the national headquarter of Democratic Party for wire-tapping Former CIA, anti-communist activists, Cuban refugees. – Some of the men got money from Nixon Reelection Committee – Watchdog/investigative journalism Deputy director of FBI was an informant (called Deep Throat) Nixon eventually resigned Though, our textbook is critical of this investigative journalism (Bennett, p. 165) – Only Nixon and his aids? What about the system? 10 5  12/12/2024 Roles of Political Reporters Reporters who cover politics Should they uncover wrongdoings of politicians? – Watchdog journalism Should they keep close relationships with politicians to know what politicians think, talk, and did regarding important political events and issues? – Insiders of politics (can be lapdog or guard dogs) In a major newspaper in Japan, there are departments of politics and social affairs – Political reporters belong to the former, and they tend to be insiders of politics – Reporters in the latter cover crimes and scandals of politicians while covering police, prosecutors office, and courts 11 Toward Excellent Final Report X It must about the media and politics – It must be after WWII Good topic, research question(s), & answer(s) Use a concept and/or theory in media & journalism studies or related fields such as sociology and political science (IR studies) Appropriate media contents if media content analysis Appropriate sources if case study Appropriate academic publications if critical literature review In-text citations and list of references for quotes & paraphrases – You must avoid plagiarism Logical & clear writing – It must make sense to the reader Think about your reader, what he likely knows & what he likely does not know APU Style Manual is the starting point! – It based on APA Style 12 6  12/12/2024 Publications & Media Contents It is ACADEMIC RESEARCH PAPER, so you need evidence to argue Thus, you need to quote and paraphrase from: – Academic publications for a concept and/or theory, & a research method – Journalistic and/or academic publications to describe an issue, an event, or actors – Media contents if you analyze them – NO Wikipedia, NO encyclopedias, NO writings by unknown authors, NO research papers by undergraduate & Master students, NO undergraduate thesis You must find who wrote the publication you plan to quote Is the author a professor, researcher, or journalist? PowerPoint slides for a course cannot be used Anecdotal evidence based on your daily life casual observation CANNOT be evidence – Something you heard from your family members, friends, & others CANNOT be evidence 13 Empirical Research Data Collection & Analysis – Media content analysis Editorials & news articles in newspapers, TV news reports, news shows, messages from important political figures’ social media account, etc. – It is NOT easy to systematically collect posts in the past – Interview & Survey NOT recommended Interview & Survey with a small number of APU students MUST NOT be used; it DOES NOT make good evidence Borrow research method (way to collect & analyze the data, etc.) from academic publication Present the background information from academic & journalistic publications Use a theory and/or concept from academic publications to discuss & interpret the result of a data analysis 14 7  12/16/2024 Myth of Objective Journalism What is objective journalism? – Can be objective? What is objective or subjective? – Can be factual? Gatekeeping (cover or ignore) Fact ←→ Opinion (interpretation) What if an important figure says something against the fact? Problems of factual reportage of Japanese newspapers – Can be fair and neutral? Can journalists report all views of all groups involved in an issue? Whose subjectivity influences news coverage? – News sources (newsmakers), journalists, audiences 9 Ideological Bias “Reporters are small cogs in large business organizations that have a vested interest in producing a marketable, neutral product” “There are notable exceptions, of course, when news organizations intentionally use political perspectives to reach like-minded audiences” “Fox News slants conservative, while MSNBC and Huffington Post are more liberal” – (Bennett, 2016, p.31) Liberal Asahi vs. Conservative Sankei in Japan Progressive Hankyoreh vs. Conservative Dong-a Ilbo in South Korea 10 5  12/16/2024 Fukushima Nuclear Energy Plant accidents in 2011 produced the anti-nuclear movement in Japan Many people joined the street demonstration and gathering against nuclear power plants at a variety of places in Japan on June 11, 2011. On June 12, 2011, Asahi published the article on the right in the front page of its morning edition. On the same day, Yomiuri published the article below in the social affairs page. Cultural Bias News is local (or national) – Locally produced and locally consumed Timely, sensational, familiar, influential Internet may be changing this…(language barrier) News is socially constructed – Each of us belongs to a certain group of people – Your mindset is socially constructed = culture Majority in society provides sources for cultural bias – Natural or weird for majority Unconscious racism, sexism, etc. – Majority people may not be aware of how differently minority people view the same thing from they do Sexual, racial minority Cultural bias may change across the ages 14 7  12/16/2024 Most Broadcasted Countries by Japanese TV News Shows Total NHK TBS TV Asahi Time (sec.) % Time (sec.) % Time (sec.) % Time (sec.) % November 2003 – August 2004 USA Iraq N. Korea China S. Korea Total January 2006 – March 2006 USA Iraq N. Korea China S. Korea Total From The Image of the World in TV News edited by Shigeru Hagiwara 15 Nationalism only for Conservatives? Some US media used to call PM Abe “a nationalist”; This probably sounds negative for many Americans – Backwards, reactionary, sticking with Imperial Japan Some misunderstand that only conservatives are nationalists Not only reactionary conservative nationalists but also progressive liberal nationalists exist 16 8  12/16/2024 Nationalism and Bias Major media outlets in a country are concerned about the nation (state) Their primary audiences are those who belong to the nation – Majority > Minority – Commercialism and nationalism can get together Thus, they tend to be nationalistic and part of nationalism – National identity building/maintaining – National interests What is nationalism? – Nationalism can be an analytical concept when you examine major media outlets in your country 17 Nationalisms 1 “Nationalism is primarily a political principle, which holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent” (Gellner, 1983, p.1) – This is not only for a nation who demands its own state but also for an existing nation-state A nationalist argument built upon the three basis arguments – (a) There exists a nation with an explicit and peculiar character. – (b) The interests and values of this nation take priority over all other interests and values. – (c) The nation must be as independent as possible. This usually requires at least the attainment of political sovereignty. – Breuilly, 1994, p.2 18 9  12/16/2024 Nationalisms 2 “an ideological movement for attaining and maintaining autonomy, unity and identity for a population which some of its members deem to constitute and actual or potential ‘nation’” (Smith, 2001, p.9) – National identity building – Film, Gandhi (1982) “in the established nations, there is a continual ‘flagging’, or reminding, of nationhood. The established nations are…described as ‘the West’. The political leaders of such nations…are not typically termed ‘nationalists.’ However…nationhood provides a continual background for their political discourses…” (Billig, 2001, p.8) – Billig calls it “banal nationalism” – “Make America Great Again” 19 Nationalisms 3 “Nationalism is rarely the nationalism of the nation, but rather marks the site where different representations of the nation contest and negotiate with each other” (Duara 1995, p. 8). – Conservatives vs. Liberals – Left-leaning liberal Asahi once attempted to create new nationalism along with Postwar Constitution “Nations do not make states and nationalisms but the other way around” (Hobsbawm 1990, p.10). 20 10  12/16/2024 Other Biases in Textbook pp. 36-40 Personalization & Dramatization – Too much focus on individuals or dramas in a newsworthy event or issue – Downplaying a big picture of politics, economy, society, etc. – However, it can be used to draw the attention of audiences Episodic and thematic news frames (Iyengar) Fragmentation – Treat it as an isolated incident – Without background, history, statistics, history, etc Politics as a Game – Treat politics as a contest of those who want power or seek personal interests – Spiral of Cynicism 21 References Billig, Michael (2001). Banal Nationalism. London, UK: Sage Publications. Breuilly, John (1994). Nationalism and the State. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Duara, Prasenjit (1995). Rescuing History from the Nation. University of Chicago Press. Gellner, Ernest (1983). Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Hobsbawm, E. J. (1990). Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge University Press. Smith, Anthony D. (2001). Nationalism. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Wolfsfeld, Gadi (2011). Making Sense of Media & Politics. London, UK: Routledge. 22 11  12/19/2024 In Other Words… “News frames are organizing devices journalists use to tell a coherent story” “News frames are also tools for providing meaning to events” “events that don’t fit the frame are less likely to get much media attention” News sources (newsmakers) also provide news frames and attempt to influence journalists – e.g. Pro-life vs. Pro-choice for abortion issues in US – Wolfsfeld, 2011, p. 50 7 News Frame as an Umbrella Term #1 News Frames for Nuclear Energy – Progress news frame No or very weak “Danger” news frame for nuclear power – Competing news frames “Pro-nuclear” frame vs “Anti-nuclear” frame – Three Mile Island accident, Chernobyl accident – Gamson & Modigliani 1989 – “Drawing A Line Between Peaceful and Military Uses of Nuclear Power: The Japanese Press, 1945 – 1955” by Takekawa » Nuclear power as advancement of technology Friends-and-Enemies Frames for Int’l News – Nationalism/Patriotism 8 4  12/19/2024 News Frame as an Umbrella Term #2 Episodic frame vs. Thematic frame (Iyenger 1994) – Episodic frame It feature a personal experience(s) as an example of an issue that needs political solution Human-interest frame – Sensationalist media outlets use human-interest frame more often (Semtko & Valkenburg 2000) – attribution of responsibility, conflict, human interest, etc. An episode may give a distorted image of an issue – Racial minority and poverty in US (Entman 2000) – What if someone makes up a story? – Thematic frame A report introduces a large picture of an issue with statistics, background, etc. Horse racing frame – Politics is about a human contest, while deemphasizing a policy contest 9 Example of Entman’s Analysis KAL incident Comparison! – Sep. 1, 1983 – Soviet military aircraft shot down a Korean Air Lines airplane – Killed 269 passengers and crew Iran Air incident – July 3, 1988 – US Navy ship shot down an Iran Air airplane – Killed 290 passengers and crew 10 5  12/19/2024 Entman’s News Framing Analysis Substantive and procedural frames – Inductive and deductive approaches Seek substantive frames by content analysis Qualitatively and quantitatively analyze articles in newspapers, reports in TV news shows, etc. in order to find frames Magnitude (size matters!) – A number of articles, key words, etc. Resonance – Words, images, and others that repeatedly appear and fit assumptions of the audience Problem definition, cause, etc. “Framing U.S. Coverage of International News” and Projections of Power by Entman 11 Entman (1991) 12 6  12/19/2024 KAL Incident vs. Iran Air Incident Focus of Frame Function of Issues Events Actors Frame Defining KAL “murder” by Iran “tragic problematic Soviet military accident” by US effects or military conditions Identifying KAL “Soviet Gov’t” Iran “human & causes/agents technical errors by US Navy” Endorsing KAL “diplomatic Iran “technical remedy opposition against improvement” Soviet Gov’t” Conveying KAL “moral Iran None moral condemnation against judgment Soviet Gov’t” 13 Yomiuri vs. Asahi History Textbook Controversy in 2001 Takekawa (2012) Yomiuri Asahi – 6 editorials – 8 editorials Int’l controversy b/w Japan & Domestic controversy over a China, Korea too conservative textbook – 166 news articles – 310 news articles – Int’l section 17 articles – Int’l section 2 articles (10.2％) （0.6％） – Social Affairs sec 27 articles – Social Affairs sec 119 articles (16.3%) (38.4%) No articles about anti-history 24 articles about anti-history textbook groups textbook groups – Front page 17 articles – Front page 40 articles Only 1 articles about 11 articles about domestic domestic issues issues 14 articles about int’l issues 27 articles about int’l issues 7  12/19/2024 Entman’s Framing Analysis History Textbook Controversy in 2001 Editorials in Yomiuri（6） Editorials in Asahi (9） Definition International Issue Domestic Issue Cause S. Korea & China Inappropriate history intervene Japan’s textbook; Society for domestic issue New History Textbook Remedy S. Korea & China must Local education stop interference of committees should not domestic issue choose this textbook for their students Moral Non-interference of Textbook whitewashes judgment domestic affairs wrongdoings of Imperial Japan during wars 15 References Entman, Robert (1991). “Framing U.S. Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narratives of KAL and Iran Air Incidents,” Journal of Communication 41(4):6-27. Entman, Robert (2000). The Black Image in the White Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Entman, Robert (2004). Projections of Power. University of Chicago Press. Gamson, William A. & Andre Modigliani (1989). Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach. Journal of Sociology 95(1). pp.1-37. Iyengar, Shanto (1991). Is Anyone Responsible?: How Television Frames Political Issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Semetko, Holli A. & Patti M. Valkenburg (2000). “Framing European Politics: A Content Analysis of Press and Television News.” Journal of Communication (Spring). 竹川俊一（2012）「社説と報道によるフレーミング分析：2001年歴史教科 書問題に関する朝日と読売を事例に」『マス・コミュニケーション研究』80、 211－229． Wolfsfeld, Gadi (2011). Making Sense of Media & Politics. London, UK: Routledge. 16 8  1/6/2025 Media & Public Opinion Agenda-setting – “When issues make the news repeatedly, people tend to rank them higher on the agenda of important concern” (Bennett, 2016, p.60) – The agenda promoted by the media can be a public agenda – 1st level of agenda-setting Issue agenda-setting (different Issues; A, B, C, D & E) – e.g. US presidential election – which candidate do you support – 2nd level of agenda-setting Attribute agenda-setting (a, b, or c sub-issue of Issue A) – Economy, Abortion, immigration, US-China relations Priming – “practice of highlighting particular issues or features in a complex situation to emphasize the considerations around which opinion forms is called priming” (Bennett, 2016, p.68) Media coverage of a certain issue tends to make you choose that issue to evaluate a political leader Former Prime Minister Kishida and his approval ratings 15 PR & Advertisement What is the difference between Public Relations (PR) and Advertisement? – Thank You for Smoking (2005) Nick Naylor is a spokesperson, lobbyist, and PR specialist for Tobacco companies To air ads from TV/radio stations costs money – Positive or Negative ads – Japan’s Liberal Democratic Party’s ad PR does not cost money although you have to pay if you hire PR specialists – PR is used to maintain the relationship of the client with the public PR companies and specialists They show up for their clients in front of cameras But they also work behind the scenes for their clients – Spin control 16 8  1/6/2025 What is Public Relations? Strategic Communication – Communication practiced by individuals and organizations to build better relationships with their stakeholders – Spin & Damage Control, lobbying – PR Professionals for Strategic Communication – Work for clients Domestic companies, politicians, gov’t Foreign companies, even foreign gov’ts – Help a client to establish better relationship w/ targeted people (voters, consumers, journalists, etc.) – Help a client to attain their goals – Help a client to minimize the damage they got PR & Media Outlets – Use media outlets for free to send out message – Advertisement is a paid use of media outlets 17 Origin of PR Father of PR & Spin: Edward Bernays – Born in Vienna in 1891 & died in 1995 – Advised many companies, politicians, & gov’t organizations Sigmund Freud is his uncle “Torches of Freedom” Campaign – Easter Parade in New York on March 31, 1929 – Women smoked; press was informed in advance – By then, smoking was a social taboo for women – Smoking cigarettes became a symbolic act for women’s freedom – Orchestrated by Bernays for American Tobacco Co. 18 9  1/6/2025 Case of PR & Int’l Public Opinion Gulf War (Aug 1990 – Feb 1991) – Iraq invaded Kuwait in Aug 90 – US –led coalition began to battle with Iraq in Jan 91 – After the Iraqi invasion, Gov’t of Kuwait hired PR, law, & lobby firms Hill & Knowlton (American PR firm) – “Citizens for a Free Kuwait” (a PR front group) – Congressional hearing for Iraqi human rights violations on Oct. 10, 1990 A 15 year-old Kuwait girl, Nayirah, talked about her observation of murders of babies by Iraqi soldiers in a hospital in Kuwait However, she was a daughter of a Kuwait ambassador to US – Hill & Knowlton trained her for hearing NO other witnesses and evidences were found for it – (Stauber & Rampton. 1995) 19 Case of PR & Int’l Politics Bosnian War (1992-95) – Break up of Yugoslavia – Armed conflicts of Bosnians and Croatians versus Serbians in Bosnia and Herzegovina, – Serbians was supported by new Yugoslavia (Republic of Serbia) Bosnians attempted to gain the support of US Gov’t & Int’l Society (int’l public opinion) – Bosnian Foreign Minister, Haris Silajdzic, went to US – Contract w/ Ruder Finn, American PR firm – Genocide of Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks) Resonance – “Ethnic Cleansing” used to gain attention of the media NHK Documentary, “Ethnic Cleansing” 20 10  1/13/2025 Do Social Media Damage Democracy? Net Echo Chamber – A person follows certain media outlet accounts because their perspectives fit his/her own – A person follows friends and acquaintances, and their political perspectives are similar to his/her own – Such a person is in an echo chamber where similar information and opinions are filled up Filter Bubble – Website algorithm provides you with news stories you want to know, not those you dislike or you should know Microtargeting – Information can be more personalized – Someone can send particular news stories and opinions to a certain group of people because such stories and opinions may make them behave in a certain way – Cambridge Analytica data scandal – interference with the Brexit referendum? 9 How to Constrain Media & Journalists Legal approaches & factors – Laws & Litigation (legal actions) Defamation, Espionage Political approaches & factors – Relationship with Pol Leaders & Officials – Strategic communication (PR) Economic approaches & factors – Business – Profit-seeking 10 5  1/13/2025 Legal Approaches & Factors Freedom of press is assured in many countries; however… Libel (defamation) is illegal – Crime law & civil law – Politicians can sue media & journalists Privacy should be protected – But it may be limited for political leaders National security – “Foreign Agents” law in Russia – Espionage Act in the film, The Post Fairness doctrine – Fairness doctrine in USA from 1949 to 1987 – Broadcasting Law in Japan Law that prohibits fake news 11 Political Approaches & Factors Relationship w/ political leaders & officials – Reporters usually rely on politicians & officials for information & comments – Mutual dependency, Friendship In The Post, Ben Bradlee admits his friendship with JFK Ideology – Some media outlets attempt to entertain like- minded audience (Bennett, 2016, p.31) Strategic communication by PR professionals 12 6  1/13/2025 Strategic Communication Condensational vs. Referential Symbols – Symbols that evoke broad categories of meaning accompanied by strong emotions are called condensational symbols. – Symbols that convey narrow meaning with little emotion are called referential symbols. Bennett p.103 Examples: – “bombing of North Vietnam” vs. “protective reaction strikes” – “global warming” vs. “climate change” Bennett, pp.95-98 – “right-wing nationalist” vs. “conservative politician” Bennett pp. 102-104 13 Simple Formula for PR (a) figure out who your audience is; (b) learn what they already think about your product or problem (c) find a language that brings your issue into the acceptance zone of their thoughts and feelings – Bennett, p. 95 Holocaust or Ethnic Cleansing? – Bosnian war in the 1990s; Bosnians vs Serbs Genocides of Bosnian Muslims by Serbians occurred, and US PR firm who worked for Bosnia carefully used “Ethnic Cleaning” to refer to the genocide in order to gain media attention in the United States – NHK Special, “Ethnic Cleansing” 14 7