Curriculum Development In Education MBEG 209 Revision 5-10 PDF

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION MBEG 209 1 LECTURE NOTES REVISION OF 5-10 Assist. Prof. Dr. Çağda Kıvanç Çağanağa 2 Criteria for the Selection of Content  Several criteria need to be considered in selecting content. These include; 1. validity 2. significance...

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION MBEG 209 1 LECTURE NOTES REVISION OF 5-10 Assist. Prof. Dr. Çağda Kıvanç Çağanağa 2 Criteria for the Selection of Content  Several criteria need to be considered in selecting content. These include; 1. validity 2. significance 3. needs 4. interests of learners 5. Utility 6. Learnability 7. Consistency with Social Realities  Validity 3  The term validity implies a close connection between content and the goals which it is intended to serve. In this sense, content is valid if it promotes the outcomes that it is intended to promote. In other words, does the curriculum include concepts and learnings that it states it does? Significance  The significance of curriculum content refers to the sustainability of the material chosen to meet certain needs and ability levels of the learners.  Needs and Interests of the Learner 4  The needs and interests of the learners are considered in the selection of content to ensure a relevant curriculum to the student’s world. This also ensures that the students will be more motivated to engage with the curriculum. Utility  In this context, the subject matter of a curriculum is selected in the light of its usefulness to the learner in solving his/her problems now and in the future.  Learnability 5  Curriculum content is learnable and adaptable to the students’ experiences. One factor in learnability is the adjustment of the curriculum content and the focus of learning experiences on the abilities of the learners. For effective learning, the abilities of students must be taken into account at every point of the selection and organization. Consistency with Social Realities  If the curriculum is to be a useful prescription for learning, its content, and the outcomes it pursues need to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the culture and the times.  Needs Analysis in Program 6 Development  Needs analysis is the process of gathering information. Needs analysis, particularly in the field of education, is an integral part of the systematic development of curriculums (Brown, 2001).  According to the definition of Dudley-Evans and St John (1998), needs analysis is a process to determine in what condition an institution or staff is and what the reasons are for their condition.  Purpose of Needs Analysis 7  Needs analysis has many purposes. For example, needs analysis can be used to identify the specific needs of the institution and individuals (Brown, 2002). If we approach it from the perspective of education, needs analysis can lead us to what should be taught and how (Salas and Cannon-Bowers, 2001).  In addition, needs analysis can increase the satisfaction degrees of employees or consumers in the organization, decrease the expenses of a company, or help improve a hospital's quality standards (Bowman, 1987). What is important here is to be able to determine well the process between the purpose and the end of the needs analysis.  Approaches in Needs Analysis 8  These approaches are the differential approach, the democratic approach, the analytic approach, the descriptive approach and the process approach.  The first of these, the differential approach, is used to demonstrate the difference between the expected and observed success level. For example, suppose an institution needs to meet 50 standards for quality. However, the institution can only meet 30 of the relevant standards. The 20 standards that arise in this context represent the expected level to be possessed.   Another approach, the democratic approach, allows for the identification 9 of needs through the needs of superior or dominant groups.  By superior and dominant groups, it is meant to include superior and dominant groups in the analysis process, considering the principles of the pluralist democracy, not the majoritarian. We can take unions taking part in the identification of training needs as an example.   A third approach, the analytical approach, is related to the 10 predetermination of the needs for change and development and the shaping of the future, depending on the conditions of our globalizing world.  For example, central exams are all to be done online in parallel to future technological developments.   Another approach, the descriptive approach, reveals the benefits and 11 advantages in the case of the existence of a problem, difference, or reduction that arises from the lack of an object or phenomenon.  For example, the difference between a class that uses the learning management system and a class that does not use it can be determined and compared. A need can be determined accordingly.   Finally, among the needs analysis approaches, we can also refer to the process 12 approach. The most important feature that differentiates this approach from other approaches is that its point of origin or focal point is on the process.  For example, the most appropriate method that can be used in a needs assessment study to track developments in the world of program development is the process approach.  Types of Needs Analysis 13  The types of needs analysis are grouped under six headings by Burton and Merrill (1991). The types of needs analysis play an important role, especially in the assessment, planning and regulation processes of needs analysis.  The first of the types of needs analysis is normative needs. Such needs emerge especially if the specified standards cannot be met. For example, the situation in our country during international examinations such as TIMSS or PISA is a good example of normative needs.   Another type of needs analysis is the felt needs. The felt needs are the needs 14 that determine the need for the knowledge, skills, or behaviors, which are possessed by the individual, and for those which must be possessed; and this need is expressed by the individual himself.  An example is for a student to recognize that his metacognition level that affects his success is low.   A third type of needs is related to the expression of the felt needs and taking 15 action considering them. As an example of the expressed needs, online education in a higher education institution is more preferred than classical education, and this situation influences course selection.  A fourth type, the comparative needs arises when two similar institutions, organizations, people, or schools do not receive or provide the same service. For example, the fact that a school has a computer laboratory and another school in the same district does not have any can be determined by comparative needs.   Another type of needs analysis, expected needs, is pertinent to the 16 determination and solution of a problem or situation that may occur in the future. For example, an enterprise should make its strategic plans for the next 20 years.  Finally, there is the urgent needs in the classification of the types of needs analysis. The urgent needs are failures that suddenly appear and cause negative consequences. Natural disasters and their consequences can be given as an example of the urgent needs.  Of course, on the one hand it is important to determine a particular approach, purpose, and type while determining needs; on the other hand, it is also important how to gather data that is appropriate for approach, purpose, and type. This issue is examined under the heading of techniques of needs analysis.  Techniques of Needs Analysis 17  The process of data collection plays a key role in whichever step of the needs analysis you take because the quality of the needs analysis depends on the analysis of the carefully collected data (Smith, Delahaye and Gates, 1986).  In this context, the techniques used in the data collection process should be considered when the needs analysis techniques are mentioned. Survey often comes to mind when many researchers refer to data collection techniques.  In addition to surveys, many data collection techniques such as observation, interview, focus group interviews and documents are frequently used by researchers (Bowman, 1987)  THE DELPHI TECHNIQUE 18  The Delphi technique is a group process characterized by structured communications through which experts on a given topic form a panel and provide multiple iterations of feedback until consensus is reached (Linstone & Turoff, 2002).   The Delphi technique can be used for any situation in which reaching consensus 19 with a group is desirable, although it is often associated with forecasting for the future (Witkin & Altschuld, 1995). Extension professionals will find it works best for situations with the following characteristics:  Delphi panelists are recognized experts in the topic (Ludwig & Starr, 2005) and have credibility with the broader audience whose needs are being assessed (Goldstein as cited in Linstone & Turoff, 2002)   There are at least 13 people who can serve as panelists; the reliability of panel 20 results is over.90 when 13 panelists complete the process (Dalkey, 2002).  There is enough time available to use the Delphi technique; a typical Delphi panel will be asked to provide at least three rounds of feedback, which makes this a time-intensive approach to generating consensus (Witkin & Altschuld, 1995).  Progel Dacum Technique 21  Progel dacum technique refers to the process of determining the procedures required for any jobs through experts who are experienced in that job. This concept, which is frequently used especially in educational sciences, is expressed as a very useful and low-cost technique.  However in Delphi Technique (Survey Technique), obtaining the opinions of selected experts (at least 100) on the subject and providing a common opinion is important. Letters or e-mails are sent to these experts about a topic and their opinions are sought. 22 Job Analysis Technique  In the occupation analysis technique, the job or profession is divided into functions. These tasks are sequential and detailed. These consist of knowledge, skills, professional attitudes and habits.  Job analysis is more efficient, but the Progel Technique is more useful because it gives quick results.  Observation 23  The observation technique generally used by educators is based on school- centered information and research data.  In the observation technique, events are examined in the environment in which they occur and emerging needs can be easily identified.  Tests – Measurement Tools and 24 Literature Review Scanning  Tests – Measurement Tools: This is the most used technique. Measurement tools enable the determination of how much of the sought-after characteristics are present in an individual. Tests are mostly used at the beginning and throughout the program to reveal learning difficulties.  Literature Review Scanning: Trying to determine the needs through written documents.  Defining Aims, Goals, and Objectives 25 (AGO)  In describing the differences between aims, goals, and objectives, Leslie Owen Wilson in The Second Principle states that:  AGO is not only an easy acronym, it is an easy way to remember the correct progression from larger ideas to smaller instructional components. In everyday English we tend to use these terms interchangeably.  It might be helpful to remember the acronym AGO in order to get the sequence straight.  The Aims, Goals, and Objectives – What are the 26 differences for writing curriculum? Examples – These are intended to be a bit Definition extreme, but perhaps you will get the points. Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate, and these are not Students will understand and directly measurable. become proficient at Aims Aims may serve as organizing identifying the different types principles of educational direction of spoken English. for more than one grade. Indeed these organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for entire programs, subject areas or the district. 27 Students will be able to identify and use American slang terms and phrases. Goals are statements of (This example is a subset of the educational intention which are aim above, but the area more specific than aims. becomes more specific. This goal moves from generic spoken English to the more Goals too may encompass an detailed area of American Goals entire program, subject area, or slang. multiple grade levels. One verb used is still “identify,” They may be in either although this goal does not amorphous language or in more specify how students are to specific behavioral terms. identify, and the verb “use” has been added. The objectives related to this goal should specify how the students will identify and use new knowledge.)  Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention which delineate either 28 general or specific outcomes. There are advantages and SAMPLES: disadvantages to different types of objectives. · Cognitive: Students will identify and list 5 slang terms they have · Behavioral objectives heard from their peers. · Holistic objectives · Non-behavioral objectives · · Affective: Student will choose 3 Objectives Problem solving objectives · of the most offensive slang terms Expressive activities that lead to from a list developed by the entire expressive outcomes. class. All of the above are legitimate ways · Physical: Students will create to write curriculum and lesson expressive gestures to go with plans. However, currently, most their favorite slang terms. objectives are written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and can be divided into specific domains — cognitive (head), affective (heart), and physical (hand)  CURRICULUM DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND 29 MODELS  There are several ways of designing school curriculum. These include; subject-centered, learner-centered, integrated, or broad fields (which combines two or more related subjects into one field of study; e.g., language arts combine the separate but related subjects of reading, writing, speaking, listening, comprehension, and spelling into a core curriculum).  Subject-Centered Curriculum Design 30  This curriculum design refers to the organization of curriculum in terms of separate subjects, e.g., geography, math, and history, etc. This has been the oldest school curriculum design and the most common in the world.  It was even practiced by the ancient Greek educators. The subject-centered design was adapted by many European and African countries as well as states and districts in the United States.   The subject-centered curriculum is better understood by teachers because their 31 training was based on this method, i.e., specialization.  Advocates of the subject-centered design have argued that the intellectual powers of individual learners can develop through this approach.  Curriculum planning is easier and simpler in the subject-centered curriculum design.   This design stresses content and tends to neglect the needs, interests, and 32 experiences of the students.  There has always been an assumption that information learned through the subject-matter curriculum will be transferred for use in everyday life situations. This claim has been questioned by many scholars who argue that the automatic transfer of the information already learned does not always occur.  Learner-Centered/Personalized 33 Curriculum Design  Learner-centered curriculum design may take various forms such as individualized or personalized learning. In this design, the curriculum is organized around the needs, interests, abilities, and aspirations of students.  Advocates of the design emphasize that attention is paid to what is known about human growth, development, and learning.  Planning this type of curriculum is done along with the students after identifying their varied concerns, interests, and priorities and then developing appropriate topics as per the issues raised. 34 Disadvantages of the Learner-Centered Curriculum Design  The needs and interests of students may not be valid or long lasting. They are often short-lived.  The interests and needs of students may not reflect specific areas of knowledge that could be essential for successful functioning in society. Quite often, the needs and interests of students have been emphasized and not those that are important for society in general.  Broad Fields/Integrated Curriculum 35  In the broad fields/integrated curriculum design, two, three, or more subjects are unified into one broad course of study. This organization is a system of combining and regrouping subjects that are related to the curriculum.  This approach attempts to develop some kind of synthesis or unity for the entire branch or more branches of knowledge into new fields.  Examples of Broad Fields 36  Language Arts: Incorporates reading, writing, grammar, literature, speech, drama, and international languages.  General Science: Includes natural and physical sciences, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, physical geography, zoology, botany, biology, and physiology.  Other: Include environmental education and family-life education.  Advantages of Broad Field/Integrated Curriculum 37 Design  It is based on separate subjects, so it provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the cultural heritage.  It integrates separate subjects into a single course; this enables learners to see the relationships among various elements in the curriculum.  It saves time in the school schedule.  Disadvantages of Broad Field/Integrated Curriculum 38 Design  It lacks depth and cultivates shallowness.  It provides only bits and pieces of information from a variety of subjects.  It does not account for the psychological organization by which learning takes place.  Core Curriculum Design 39  The concept core curriculum is used to refer to areas of study in the school curriculum or any educational program that is required by all students.  The core curriculum provides students with “common learning” or general education that is considered necessary for all. Thus, the core curriculum constitutes the segment of the curriculum that teaches concepts, skills, and attitudes needed by all individuals to function effectively within the society.  PLANNING AND PREPARING A LESSON OR SEQUENCE OF 40 LESSONS How do we identify and select aims? Aims are…  what we want to learn or be able to do at the end of a lesson, a sequence (i.e.series) of lessons or a whole course. 41 Aims may focus on…  a function  a grammatical structure  the vocabulary of a particular topic  on developing a language skill  Aims may not always focus on particular areas of language for young learners.  The aim of a lesson may differ 42 For example….  Listening to a story for pleasure Or  Encouraging a positive attitude towards the foreign language  To identify and select the most appropriate 43 aims, we need to ask ourselves two questions… 1. What do my learners already know? 2. What do they need to know? 44 The answers to these questions …  will help us to make sure that the aims are right ones for a particular group of learners at a particular time. 45 Main Aim… Describes the most important thing we want to achieve in a lesson or sequence of lessons.  For example… 46  We may want learners to understand and practice using new language, to reinforce or consolidate (i.e.to make stronger) the use of language they already know by giving them further practice, or to revise language they have recently learnt. 47 On a lesson plan the main aim should also include…  An example of the target language we are planning to teach.  Subsidiary Aims 48 …show the language or skills learners must be able to use well in order to achieve the main aim of the lesson.  Stating both main and subsidiary aims is a good way of making sure that our lesson plan focuses on what we want our learners to learn, or to be able to do.  It enables us to see how the lesson should develop, from one stage (or part) to the next, building up our learners’ knowledge or skills in the best possible order. 49 Personal Aims …show what we would like to improve or focus on in our own teaching. …these might be about improving the way that we handle aids and materials Or …particular teaching techniques Or …they might be about our relationship with the learners  Some more examples… 50  To try different correction techniques  To remember to check instructions  To write more clearly on the blackboard/whiteboard  To make more use of the phonemic chart (a poster with phonemic symbols)  To get learners to work with different partners  To get quieter learners to answer questions  Key Concepts 51  The syllabus (i.e. the course program) and/or the course book will give us a general direction for planning our teaching. To decide on specific aims for a particular lesson, however, we should think about our learners needs and the stage they have reached in their learning.  We can identify and select appropriate personal aims in a similar way, i.e. by looking back at earlier lessons we have taught and thinking about things that worked well and things we want to improve.  Key concepts… 52  We should not confuse aims and procedures. Aims describe what the learners will learn or what they will be able to do with the language, while procedures-for example, listening to a recording and answering questions about it – are what the teacher and learners will do at each stage of the lesson.  Aims should not be too general. To teach the past simple or to develop learners reading skills do not say enough about the purpose of the lesson. More specific aims might be to introduce and practice in predicting content, scanning for specific information and guessing meaning from context.  Key concepts… 53  We shouldn’t plan to do too much in a lesson. The amount we plan to cover will depend on the lenght of the lesson and the learners’ level.  Learners also need to know what the lesson is going to be about. It is often helpful to announce our aims (or to write them on the board) at the beginning of the lesson, and/or to repeat them at the end.  Learners of all languages find it helpful to know why they are doing things. For younger learners the aims of a lesson can be described in very simple language, focusing on the things they will do in the lesson and the language knowledge they will take away from it. (for example,’ Today we’re going to read a story and learn how to describe people in English’.) 54 How do we identify the different components of a lesson plan? Choose the comparison that you think best describes a lesson plan?  A lesson plan is like...  An instruction leaflet  A photograph  A story  A road map  A computer programme  A series of road signs  A written summary  Something else? 55 A lesson plan......is a set of notes that helps us to think through what we are going to teach and how we are going to teach it. It also guides us during and after the lesson. We can identify the most important components of a lesson by thinking carefully about...  What we want our learners to do  How we want them to do it 56 The main components of a lesson plan shows us...  The aims ( what the lesson is for)  The procedures ( what the teacher and the learners will do during the lesson and how they will do it)  SMART 57  PLANNING AN INDIVIDUAL LESSON OR A SEQUENCE OF LESSONS 58 How do we plan an individual lesson or a sequence of lessons? When planning lessons we...  Think about its aims  The shape of the lesson  The kind of techniques that we are most appropriate for a particular group of learners. 59 For example...  If we are introducing a new grammatical structure, we might choose a PPP approach or a TBL approach.  Skill lessons too have regular shapes that we can use to organise lesson plans:  For receptive skills; We usually plan tasks or activities for learners to do before, while and after reading or listening 60 For example...  For productive skills; There is usually an introductory stage to set the scene (i.e. to explain the context) and a feedback stage after the speaking or writing activity.  We also need to think about 61  The connections between the aims of the lesson  The procedures we will use to achieve those aims  Identifying possible procedures... 62  the available materials  the length of the lesson  the information we have about our learners But the most important thing is...  to make sure that the materials, tasks and activities we select are the ones that will help a particular group of learners to achieve the aim we have identified.  A sequence of lessons... 63...is a number of related lessons that develop language knowledge and/or language skills over a period of time....sequences may develop a single topic or language area, or may involve topics or language areas that are very closely connected.  Engage, Study, Activate (ESA) 64 Jeremy Harmer  Engage, Study, Activate (ESA) is a method of sequencing activities in your lessons and was first proposed by Jeremy Harmer in his book, ‘How to Teach English’.  Example 1 65 Structural Sequence 1- Revision: past simple 2- Revision: present perfect 3- Contrast: past simple vs. present perfect  Example 2 66 Integrated Skills Sequence 1- Vocabulary development: describing places (function: describing) 2- Reading: choosing a holiday 3- Writing: letter to a friend narrating holiday experiences (function:narrating)  Example 3 67 Project Work 1. Reading and listening about free time activities 2. Class survey and research: sport and entertainment 3. Preparation of a poster display to show results of survey 68 Schemes of Work-Lesson Plan  Schemes of work are less detailed than lesson plans. A sequence of lessons should have a logical and learning-friendly progression and a good balance of approaches and activities.  Like a lesson plan, a scheme of work helps us to identify our aims and make sure we choose materials and procedures that match those aims.  Key Concepts 69  It’s a good idea to make lesson plans look as simple as possible, so notes are better than full sentences, and there is no need to describe every step in great deal. However we may want to write down some important things in a complete form- for example 1. prompts for drilling, 2. questions to check learners’ understanding, 3. instructions, etc.  Key concepts... 70  A lesson plan should be clear and easy to read during lesson. Different colours, boxes, underlining, etc. are useful. It is often helpful to include drawings of the way the writeboard will look at different stages.  Variety is very important both in a sequence of lessons and in a single lesson. We should avoid always doing the same kind of things in the same order, e.g. always beginning the lesson with a conversation or always ending with a role play. There are several different ways of introducing variety into lessons..............  List of things we can vary... 71 1. Pace: Quick and fast-moving or slow and reflective. 2. Interaction: Individual, pairs, groups, whole class 3. Skill: Productive or receptive 4. Level of difficulty: Non-demanding or requiring effort and concentration 5. Content: Changing from one language point to another; from one subject to another 6. Mood: Light or serious; happy or sad; tense or relaxed 7. Exciting or calming activities: ‘Stirring’ (lively and active) or ‘settling’ (quietining down)  Key concepts... 72  Learners may well require more frequent revision than the coursebook provides. A scheme of work is a good way to make sure that we recycle language (i.e.use it again) and include regular revision activities during a sequence of lessons.  Coursebook units are often arranged around a specific topic (such as sport or relationships), which may be a useful way of linking together a sequence of lessons. This kind of sequence gives us the chance to develop particular areas of vocabulary, but learners may feel that the lessons are repetitive, so we need plenty of variety of texts and tasks.