Introduction to Materials PDF

IT2310 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS Materials (Sinex, 2017) Materials are the substances that make up everything we see and use daily. They can be natural, such as wood, cotton, or stone, or artificial, such as plastic, metal, or glass. Materials have different propert...

IT2310 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS Materials (Sinex, 2017) Materials are the substances that make up everything we see and use daily. They can be natural, such as wood, cotton, or stone, or artificial, such as plastic, metal, or glass. Materials have different properties, such as strength, hardness, flexibility, conductivity, or color, that determine how they can be used and what they can do. Material Science is the study of the structure, composition, and behavior of materials at different scales, from atoms and molecules to macroscopic objects. Material scientists seek to understand how materials are formed, how they interact with each other and their environment, and how they can be modified or improved for various applications. Material science is an interdisciplinary field that combines physics, chemistry, engineering, and biology. Some of the goals of material science are to discover new materials with desirable properties, to design and fabricate materials with specific functions, to optimize the performance and efficiency of existing materials, and to reduce the environmental impact and cost of materials production and use. Material science has many applications in various fields, such as electronics, energy, medicine, transportation, construction, and art. Kinds of Materials 1. Natural material – materials made by nature, whether organic or inorganic 2. Synthetic material – materials made by man using both organic and inorganic substances Synthesis - chemical reaction where two (2) or more substances combine to form a new complex substance Catalyst - any substance that substantially affects the rate of reaction of materials Types of Catalysis 1. Positive – these catalysts can increase the rate of reaction of materials by lowering the activation energy required. Figure 1. Positive catalysis graph Source: http://www.sciencehq.com/wp-content/uploads/positive-catalyst.jpg 2. Negative – a.k.a. inhibitors; these catalysts can decrease the rate of reactions by increasing the required activation energy. 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 1 of 20  IT2310 Figure 2. Negative catalysis graph Source: http://www.sciencehq.com/wp-content/uploads/Negative-Catalysts.jpg Kinds of Catalysts 1. Heterogeneous – a catalyst that exists as a separate material, in a different phase from the reactants, in the reaction process (e.g., a solid catalyst in a liquid material mixture) 2. Adsorptive – molecules in fluids (adsorbate) bind to a solid or liquid surface (adsorbent) The catalyst is the adsorbent The reactants are the adsorbates 3. Surface – the adsorbate's molecules diffuse on the adsorbent's surface, initiating a reaction, then desorb (i.e., split away) from the adsorbent 4. Homogeneous – a catalyst that exists as a separate material in the same phase as the reactants in the reaction process (e.g., a liquid catalyst in a liquid material mixture) 5. Acid-base catalysis – the material is catalyzed either by an acid (𝐻 + ) or a base (𝑂𝐻 − ) 6. Specific acid catalysis – catalysis performed by a specific acid or base 7. General acid catalysis – catalysis performed by any acid or base 8. Organometallic – material is catalyzed by organometallic compounds 9. Photocatalyst – a catalyst that uses light to activate its catalytic properties 10. Enzymes and biocatalysts – catalysts used for biological processes 11. Nanocatalysts – nanomaterials capable of being catalysts 12. Autocatalyst – a catalyst that is the product of a reaction Characterizations 1. Metal – any material with high thermal and electric conductivity and forming bonds and cations with nonmetals (Thomas Net, n.d.) 2. Alloy – a combination of at least two (2) materials, with one (1) of these as a metal, whose properties are vastly different from its original form (Chegg Study, n.d.) 3. Ceramic – any inorganic, nonmetallic solid made up of either metal or nonmetal compounds, primarily used in pottery (Science Learning Hub, n.d.) 4. Nanomaterial – any chemical substance or material manufactured and used in small-scale settings (European Commission, n.d.) ▪ a material with any external dimension in the nanoscale (i.e., 1–100 nm) or having an internal structure or surface structure in the nanoscale (ISO Online Browsing Platform, 2015) 5. Biomedical material – non-viable materials used in different medicinal devices proposed to act together with biological systems (Murphy, 2016) 6. Optical material – non-viable materials used in different optical devices 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 2 of 20  IT2310 7. Composites – a combination of two (2) or more materials whose chemical properties are different from their constituents' properties 8. Polymer – any substance made up of various network formations of repeating units of compounds Characterization Techniques 1. Microscopy – probes and maps the surface (and subsurface) structures of material using photons, electrons, ions, or any other physical probes Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a form of microscopy where a focused beam of electrons scans the surface of an object, creating a detailed three-dimensional image (NanoScience Instruments, n.d.). Parts of the SE Microscope 1. Electron gun – a machine where thermoelectrons are fired as a beam by inducing a voltage between the filament and the anode within 2. Electron column – focuses and illuminates the specimen using the generated electron beam 3. Vacuum pump system – keeps the electron column free of particles that may otherwise disrupt the electron beam 4. Specimen chamber – highly vacuumed part of the SEM where the specimen is placed for examination where detectors are located 5. Operation panel – main control Figure 3. Scanning Electron Microscope unit of the SEM https://www.pomona.edu/sites/default/files/styles/max_1300x1300/public/imag 6. Operation unit – display area for es/insets/tanenbaum-sem-1.jpg specimen examination 7. Cryo-unit – an add-on part where frozen specimens are prepared before insertion in the specimen chamber (applicable if the SEM has a cryo mode) Applications Image morphology of the samples (e.g., bulk material, coatings, foils, sectioned material) Image analyses on its compositional and/or bonding differences (i.e., contrasting and backscattering of electrons) Image molecular probes (e.g., metal and fluorescent probes) Undertake micro- and nanolithography (i.e., debride materials from the sample) Study optoelectronic behavior of semiconductors using cathodoluminescence 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 3 of 20  IT2310 View/Map grain (or crystallographic) orientation View wet, dry, and/or frozen materials Heat or cool materials during observation Generate X-rays from samples for microanalysis to determine chemical composition Requirements The material must be electrically conductive. The material must be electrically grounded. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is a form of microscopy where a high- energy beam of electrons is shone on a very thin sample of an object, creating a detailed two-dimensional image (Warwick, n.d.). Parts of the TE Microscope The TEM also has the same parts as the SEM, with a few notable citations: 1. Electromagnetic lens system – lens where a solenoid focuses the spiraling electron beam 2. The electron column contains both the specimen chamber as well as apertures for further precision 3. The detectors have a cooling Figure 4. Parts of a transmission electron microscope (TEM). Source: system. https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/microscopes/tem/index.html Applications Image morphology of the samples (e.g., viewing material's section, fine powders suspended on a thin film, microorganisms and virus analyses, frozen solutions) 3D image construction (using tilt method) Image analyses on its compositional and/or bonding differences (i.e., contrasting and using spectroscopy techniques, microanalysis, and electron energy loss) Physically manipulate samples while viewing them, such as indenting or compressing them, to measure mechanical properties (only when holders specialized in these techniques are available) View frozen materials (in a TEM with a cryostage setup) Acquire electron diffraction patterns (using the physics of Bragg Diffraction) Perform electron energy loss spectroscopy of the beam passing through a sample to determine sample composition or the bonding states of atoms in the sample Generate X-rays from samples for microanalysis to determine chemical composition (MyScope, 2014) 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 4 of 20  IT2310 Requirements The material must be electrically conductive. The material must be electrically grounded. The material must be prepared thin. 2. Macroscopy – uses various principles to test the material's quantifiable properties 3. Spectroscopy – uses various principles to reveal details about a material's properties, such as chemical composition, crystal structure, photoelectric properties, and variations of a material's composition, using optical radiation and X-rays Organic Compounds (Petrucci, 2017) Organic Compounds – compounds comprising mostly of carbon (𝐶), hydrogen (𝐻2 ), and oxygen (𝑂2 ), which are the building blocks of living things 1. Hydrocarbons – compounds mostly made up of 𝐶 and 𝐻2 Aliphatic – 𝐶 − 𝐻 compounds forming open chains ▪ Alkanes – a group of saturated hydrocarbons whose single-bond open 𝐶 − 𝐶 chains form an open tree structure – increasing carbon bonds is determined by 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2+2𝑛 , wherein for every increase of carbon atoms in the alkane compound, two (2) hydrogen atoms are added. Shown below is hexane (𝐶6 𝐻14 ). ▪ Cycloalkanes – alkane compounds that form a ring based on single bonds, liberating excess 𝐻2 in the process Shown below is cyclopentane (𝐶5 𝐻10). ▪ Alkenes – a group of unsaturated hydrocarbons derived from alkanes, containing at least one (1) 𝐶 − 𝐶 double bond – increasing carbon bonds is determined by 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 , where for every carbon increase, an 𝐻2 diatom is liberated from the alkane after forming the double bond. Shown below is heptene (𝐶7 𝐻14), also known as 1-heptene. ▪ Alkynes – a group of unsaturated hydrocarbons derived from alkenes, containing at least one (1) 𝐶 − 𝐶 triple bond – increasing carbon bonds is determined by 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛−2 , wherein for every carbon increase, an 𝐻2 diatom is liberated from the alkene after forming the triple bond. Shown below is ethyne (𝐶2 𝐻2). ▪ Alkyls – a group of saturated hydrocarbons (basically alkanes) that is missing one (1) hydrogen atom 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 5 of 20  IT2310 – increasing carbon bonds is determined by 𝐶𝑛 𝐻1+2𝑛 , wherein for every increase of carbon atoms in the alkane compound, only one (1) hydrogen atom is added. − Shown below is methyl (𝐶6 𝐻13 ). ▪ Alkoxy – alkyls bonded with oxygen Shown below is hexyloxy (𝐶6 𝐻13 𝑂−). Aromatic – hydrocarbons that form a ring due to 𝜎 bonds, with three (3) 𝐶 +3 𝐻 molecules forming double bonds with other hydrocarbon molecules, also known as the benzene group, the arenes, or aryl hydrocarbons. Shown below is benzene (𝐶6 𝐻6). 2. Alcohols – organic compounds where a hydroxyl (−𝑂𝐻) bonds with an available free radical (represented by iodine 𝐼, model shown below); names usually end in -ol. NOTE: Free radicals can be other compounds, such as another alkene, aromatic, etc. Shown below is propanol (𝐶3 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻), sometimes stylized as n-propanol. 3. Aldehydes – also known as alkanals, are organic compounds where a carbonyl-hydrogen group (i.e., 𝐶𝐻𝑂) bonds with free radicals; names usually end in either -al or -aldehyde. – ring configurations have -carbaldehyde as a suffix – if it is a part of a carboxylic acid, the prefix oxo- is used Shown below are octanal (𝐶8 𝐻15 𝐶𝐻𝑂) and cyclohexanecarbaldehyde (𝐶6 𝐻11 𝐶𝐻𝑂). 4. Carboxylic Acids – organic compounds where a carboxyl group (i.e., 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻, model shown below) bonds with a free radical; names end in either -ic or -oic acid. 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 6 of 20  IT2310 Shown below is butanoic acid, also called butyric acid (𝐶3 𝐻7 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻). 5. Ketones – also known as alkanones, are organic compounds where an oxygen is in a double bond with a carbon bonded with free radicals; names usually end in –one. Shown below is nonanone (𝐶9 𝐻18 𝑂), stylized as 2-nonanone. 6. Esters – organic compounds derived from either carboxylic acid or alcohol, which has an oxygen- alkoxy group (𝑂 − − 𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑜𝑥𝑦, shown below) capable of holding two (2) free radicals. Shown below is pentyl hexanoate (𝐶6 𝐻11 (𝐶5 𝐻10 )𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻). Pentyl hexanoate is an ester made from hexanoic acid and a pentyl radical. 7. Amines – organic compounds containing nitrogen with two (2) lone pairs (model shown below); free radicals replace the hydrogen atoms. NOTE: The amount of radicals dictates the type of amine of a given compound. The amine types are (in order, L–R) primary (1°), secondary (2°), and tertiary (3°) amines. 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 7 of 20  IT2310 Shown below is acetaminophen (𝐶8 𝐻9 𝑁𝑂2 ), commonly called paracetamol. Acetaminophen, as a secondary amine, is made up of a phenol (𝐶5 𝐻5 𝑂𝐻𝐶 − ) radical, an amine with two (2) radicals, and an ethanone (𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐶 − ) radical. Alkane Name Chemical Formula 2D Model Methane 𝐶𝐻4 Ethane 𝐶2 𝐻6 Propane 𝐶3 𝐻8 Butane 𝐶4 𝐻10 Pentane 𝐶5 𝐻12 Hexane 𝐶6 𝐻14 Heptane 𝐶7 𝐻16 Octane 𝐶8 𝐻18 Nonane 𝐶9 𝐻20 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 8 of 20  IT2310 Decane 𝐶10 𝐻22 Table 1. List of Basic Alkanes Alkene Name Chemical Formula 2D Model Methene 𝐶𝐻2 Non-existent due to methene being highly reactive Ethene 𝐶2 𝐻4 Propene 𝐶3 𝐻6 Butene 𝐶4 𝐻8 Pentene 𝐶5 𝐻10 Hexene 𝐶6 𝐻12 Heptene 𝐶7 𝐻14 Octene 𝐶8 𝐻16 Nonene 𝐶9 𝐻18 Decene 𝐶10 𝐻20 Table 2. List of Basic Alkenes Alkyne Name Chemical Formula 2D Model Methyne 𝐶𝐻2 Non-existent due to methyne being highly reactive Ethyne 𝐶2 𝐻4 Propyne 𝐶3 𝐻6 Butyne 𝐶4 𝐻8 Pentyne 𝐶5 𝐻10 Hexyne 𝐶6 𝐻12 Heptyne 𝐶7 𝐻14 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 9 of 20  IT2310 Octyne 𝐶8 𝐻16 Nonyne 𝐶9 𝐻18 Table 3. List of Basic Alkynes Polymers (Gaffney, 2017; Sinex, 2017) Polymers were developed during the 1920s, when certain materials, such as wood, gelatin, and cotton, among others, were found to have puzzling properties. Hermann Staudinger (1920) clearly showed that the long-held misconception of small aggregates (held together by intermolecular forces) were, in fact, enormously large molecules made up of various similar particulates held together by covalent bonds. Monomers with double bonds are represented in two (2) forms (i.e., isomerism) which are the following: o cis- Configuration – the form where radicals exist on the same side of the configuration. o trans- Configuration – the form where radicals exist on opposite sides of the configuration. The following types of polymers exist depending on the monomer (i.e., repeating subunit) present: o Homopolymers are polymers that comprise only one (1) type of monomer. o Copolymers are polymers with two (2) monomers. o Terpolymers are polymers with three (3) monomers. Complex asymmetric substances form complex polymeric structures (i.e., tacticity), such as the following: o Atactic polymers form monomer chains in a random fashion. o Syndiotactic polymers form monomer chains in a neat, alternating fashion. o Isotactic polymers form monomer chains where the radical is found in a similar setup as the previous (i.e., ordered formation) 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 10 of 20  IT2310 Properties 1. High strength - low weight ratio 2. High resistance to other chemicals 3. High thermal and electrical resistance (i.e., good insulators) 4. Multiple ways of processing 5. Nigh-limitless range of characteristics and colors 6. Mostly non-biodegradable (i.e., degrading for a very long time) Processes 1. Addition reaction – involves unsaturated compounds containing double (or triple) bonds (i.e., 𝐶 = 𝐶 or 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 bonds) Examples: Hydrogenation – treatment of substances with molecular hydrogen (𝐻2 ), with the treated substances usually unsaturated before the process – reduces double or triple bonds in hydrocarbons – requires three (3) components, namely molecular hydrogen, the substance, and a catalyst Catalysts can be nickel, palladium, or platinum. Substances that are saturated are mostly alkenes. Mechanism: As an example, polypropylene, with the chemical formula (𝐶3 𝐻6 )𝑛 , is a stable polymer used in hydronic heating and cooling systems, particularly for computer systems. It is made up of multiple propene monomers. It involves a Ziegler-Natta catalyst (𝑅2 ) that is heated to form two (2) radicals, 𝑅2 → 2𝑅 ⋅ The reactive radical attacks a propene molecule to generate a new radical, 𝑅 ⋅ + 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻3 → 𝑅 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 ⋅ , The initial reaction sets off a chain reaction with another available propene molecule, and so on. 𝑅 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 ⋅ + 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻3 → 𝑅 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 ⋅ Very quickly, a long chain of 𝐶𝐻2 groups are built. Eventually, this process ends with the combination of two (2) long-chain radicals that form polyethylene. The expanded formula is 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 11 of 20  IT2310 𝑅 − (−𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 −)𝑛 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 ⋅ + 𝑅 − (−𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 −)𝑛 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 ⋅ → 𝑅 − (−𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 −)𝑛 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻2 − (−𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻2 −)𝑛 − 𝑅 where −(−𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝐻 = 𝐶𝐻2 −)𝑛 − is a shorthand for long repeating units of the polymer. The subscript 𝑛 represents a large value (in the hundreds value) (Chang & Goldsby, 2016). Hydrohalogenation – Hydrogen halides are any compound that has both hydrogen and a halogen, which become acids in the aqueous phase; thus, these take place if hydrogen halides interact with organic compounds. Mechanism: As an example, ethylene, with the chemical formula 𝐶2 𝐻4, is a stable alkene used in making polyethylene. If hydrogen chloride (𝐻𝐶𝑙) is added to it, it forms a chloroethane, as shown below: 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2 → 𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻2 − 𝐶𝑙 Halogenation – similar to hydrohalogenation, but only involves the halogens. 2. Condensation reaction – a reaction where two (2) or more molecules combine to form a larger molecule, at the expense of losing some smaller molecules simultaneous to the reaction (usually water or methanol) Mechanism: An example is the production of polyester ([𝐶8 𝐻8 (𝐶𝑂2 𝐻)2 ]𝑛 ). It uses terephthalic acid, an organic compound with the chemical formula 𝐶6 𝐻4 (𝐶𝑂2 𝐻)2. The terephthalic acid's configuration is shown below: Polyester is also made from ethylene (𝐶2 𝐻4). It is a stable organic compound used to make plastic. It also exists in an aqueous form (called ethylene glycol, 𝐶2 𝐻4 (𝑂𝐻)2), which is primarily used in this process, In the given scenario, ethylene glycol is added to the terephthalic acid, creating a monomer shown below. Water (𝐻2 𝑂) is also one (1) of its by-products. 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 12 of 20  IT2310 As the process continues, polyester is made. Model-wise, the polyethylene can look like the diagram below (with the extra ethylene chains represented by the hanging hydroxide molecule 𝑂𝐻 − ), Timeline of Metal Processes, Heat Treatments, Surface Technology (Bodycote, n.d.) Timeline of metal processes, heat treatments and surface technology from 8700 BC to Modern Day: (See Interactive timeline at https://www.bodycote.com/history-of-metal/) Copper AGE Copper is a ductile metal, resistant to corrosion, with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. All four of these metallurgical techniques appeared simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic Age, c.7500 BC. They included cold working, annealing, smelting and lost wax casting. Investment casting is an industrial process based on the lost-wax casting method (one of the oldest known metal-forming techniques) and arose around 4500 BC. Investment casting is a technique for making accurate castings using a mold produced around a wax pattern or similar type of material. This then melts during the casting process. Copper was used by humans for over 10,000 years, with evidence of its use found recently in what is now Northern Iraq. Cultures of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Indus, and China all used copper to develop weapons for war. Sumerians were some of the first people to utilize copper for this purpose. What are the uses of copper? Weapons of war, currency, art, and jewelry. Modern-day uses are in pipes, wiring, radiators, car brakes and bearings, etc. 8700 BC Iraq - Copper artifacts are discovered in Northern Iraq. 4500 BC Serbia - Copper + Tin - Copper and tin are used to make bronze in Serbia 4000 BC Balkans - Mines in the hillside at Rudna Glava are used to extract copper ore. 3500 BC Austria - Ötzi the iceman and his copper axe are discovered 2800 BC China - Smelting of copper found in China. 600 BC Central - Copper smelting begins in Central America America 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 13 of 20  IT2310 Bronze Age There are several bronze alloys, but usually, modern bronze is 88% copper to 12% tin. A so-called ‘alpha’ bronze alloy - used to make springs, turbines, and blades - is typically only 5% tin. Historical bronzes, for example, found in a 12th-century English candlestick, might have contained a mixture of copper, lead, nickel, tin, iron, antimony, arsenic, and a large amount of silver; this could suggest that hordes of coins were used in the creation of certain items. The term ‘commercial bronze’ is a mixture of 90% copper to 10% zinc, and bronze used for architectural applications is only 57% copper to 40% zinc and 3% lead. The type of bronze sometimes used in light reflectors or mirrors is called ‘bismuth bronze’ and includes 1% bismuth, which is a beautiful element, along with copper, tin, and zinc. 4500 BC Serbia - Copper and tin are used to make bronze in Serbia 2500 BC Sumerian - Vessel made for Queen Puabi using early brazing techniques 2000 BC China - China started making a crude form of bronze 1500 BC China - In Shang Dynasty China, bronze objects became highly detailed. Iron Age 2500 BC Turkey - Iron artifacts found in Hattic Royal tombs 1800 BC India - India begins to work iron 1600 BC Hittites - The Hittites create iron metallurgy, and iron is now becoming popular for weaponry Steel Age 1800 BC Turkey - Anatolia was taking its first steps into creating steel from smelting iron. 1400 BC - Hardening processes are being used. 1400 BC Africa - East Africa begins to work with steel. 1200 BC Galilee - Tempered martensite found in Galilee. 650 BC Sparta - Large quantities of steel are being produced in Sparta. 600 BC India - Wootz steel is produced in India. 400 BC China - The Chinese created quench hardened steel. 200 BC Sri Lanka - Sinhalese people used monsoon winds to make steel. 0-99 AD Tanzania - Haya people of Tanzania created the hearth furnace to make carbon steel. 800 AD Turkmenistan - Crucible steel was created in Merv, Turkmenistan. 1161AD China - Song China created a method for using less charcoal in a blast furnace. 1200 AD China - East Asia created the process that was later coined the Bessemer Process 1623 AD - Pascal’s Law is formalized. 1700 AD Cumbria - The first iron foundries were set up in Cumbria, UK. 1740 AD Doncaster - Modern crucible steel is invented by Benjamin Huntsman in Doncaster, UK. 1784 AD - The puddling process is used by Henry Cort. 1846 AD - The Bessemer process was patented. The Siemens-Martin process is also created. 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 14 of 20  IT2310 1895 AD - An article was published describing the boronizing process. 1907 AD France - Electric arc furnace (EAF) was created by Paul Heroult of France. 1908 AD - Ion implantation is discovered. 1912 AD Switzerland - Flame spraying was invented. 1913 AD USA - First isostatic pressing patent is filed 1923 AD Germany - The anodizing process is first used industrially 1930 AD USA - Austempering of steel pioneered in the USA. 1931 AD - The invention of the electron microscope led to a greater understanding of hardening 1950 AD - Plasma spray is developed 1952 AD - Dawn of electron beam welding. 1956 AD - First specific hot isostatic pressing (HIP) patent granted 1960 AD - HIP was used to heal porosity and micro-defects in metal castings. 1968 AD - Invention of carburizing techniques. 1980 AD - High-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) technique of thermal spray developed. - Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) enters the modern era. 1985 AD - Development of the specialty stainless steel processes (S3P). Metals (Petrucci, et.al, 2017) Ore – any naturally occurring solid material that contains extractable metal or any valuable mineral Scale – residual flaky material made from oxidized metal, usually from iron Metallurgy – the study of the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their compounds and mixtures (i.e., alloys) Metallurgical Process 1. Ore Enrichment a. Levigation – a.k.a. hydraulic washing; the process of washing away the impurities from powdered ore, leaving the required metals to precipitate b. Froth Flotation – the process of mixing powdered ore with water and a small amount of oil within a tank, with the air blown inside the tank, creating a froth that carries the important metals to the surface c. Liquation – the process of heating the ore, allowing the metal with the lower melting point to collect at the bottom, leaving the impurities d. Magnetic Separation – the process of separating the ore from the impurities by means of magnetic manipulation e. Leaching – a.k.a. chemical separation; the process of adding chemicals that can effectively dissolve the required metals in a powdered ore, leaving the impurities behind 2. Conversion of enriched ores to metal oxides a. Calcination – the process of converting oxide and carbonate ores into metal oxides by heating the enriched ores in the absence of air b. Roasting – the process of converting sulfide ores into metal oxides by heating the enriched ores in the presence of air 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 15 of 20  IT2310 3. Metal extraction from metal oxides a. Heat reduction – the process of extracting the required, albeit impure, metal from the metal oxide using heat b. Chemical reduction – the process of extracting the required, albeit impure, metal from the metal oxide using a reducing agent i. Smelting - chemical reduction using carbon (C) ii. Alumino-thermic process – a.k.a. thermite process; a chemical reduction using aluminum (𝐴𝑙) 4. Metal Refinement a. Liquation – extracts tin (𝑆𝑛) and lead (𝑃𝑏) b. Cupellation – extraction of silver (𝐴𝑔) from lead ore using a heated cupel (a vessel made of bone ash) in the presence of air c. Poling – extraction of copper (𝐶𝑢) by stirring the molten impure 𝐶𝑢 using green wood poles d. Electrolytic refining – metal extraction by means of redox reactions in a setup similar to electroplating e. Crystal bar process – a process developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer that allows the refinement of ultra-pure metals, such as titanium (𝑇𝑖), vanadium (𝑉), and zirconium (𝑇𝑖) among others Metalworking - the process of working with metals to create various formations and structures that suit a particular need or assemblage Properties 1. Mostly lustrous (i.e., shiny) 2. Mostly solid Exemptions: 𝑅𝑏, 𝐶𝑠, 𝐹𝑟, 𝐺𝑎, and 𝐻𝑔 3. Most are highly dense 4. Most can be easily deformed (i.e., malleability, ductility) 5. Easily form positive ions 6. High density 7. High thermal and electrical conductivity 8. Strength depends on crystal structure arrangement Processes Hot Working – the process of working (i.e., manipulating plastic deformation) on a material well beyond its recrystallization temperature ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Hardness and ductility remain the same Metal loss by scale formation Metal loss may cause weakening on the Porosity is eliminated material itself Improves a metal’s physical properties and Fatigue failures may significantly appear refines its grain structure 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 16 of 20  IT2310 Large shape changes can be made without ruptures Impurities are broken up and redistributed High cost of labor (e.g., high energy evenly throughout the material consumption) Machines used for working are smaller and faster A material’s surfaces need not be clean Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hot Working Cold Working – the process of working on a material below its recrystallization temperature ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Good dimensional control Only ductile materials can be shaped The material has a good surface finish Metal may be overworked Improves a metal's strength and hardness Applicable to metals that can't handle heat Heat treatment is eventually needed treatment Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Cold Working Metal Working Processes 1. Casting – a method where solid materials are dissolved and heated (at the temperature required to alter their chemical structure), which are then poured into molds to generate the required shape after solidifying 2. Forging – the process of hammering a metal billet into shape, usually incorporating heat to reduce workload 3. Heat Treatment – the process of altering the metal's molecular structure by introducing heat a. Annealing – the process of heat treatment that allows the metal to be more ductile by heating the material above its recrystallization temperature b. Quenching – the process of rapidly cooling the material, forcing it to "recrystallize" itself, improving the metal's hardness (i.e., strength), but lowering its toughness (i.e. impact resistance) c. Tempering – the process of alleviating stresses on the worked material, trying to balance out the metal's hardness and toughness 4. Rolling – the process of passing a billet through successively narrow rollers for sheet-making 5. Extrusion – the process of forcing a hot metal into a pressurized casting die, which is shaped upon cooling 6. Work Hardening – the process of toughening up metals by means of plastic deformation 7. Electroplating – the process of bonding a thin layer of metal on another metal's surface through a redox reaction 8. Thermal spraying – the process of coating a metal with a melted material by spraying the melted material on the worked material 9. Swaging – forces the material to change its shape using a molding die 10. Cold forging – forging using little to no heat, reducing scale production 11. Sizing – the process of minimizing the metal's thickness via squeezing 12. Riveting – widely-used joining process using metal rivets to join two (2) metals 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 17 of 20  IT2310 13. Staking – joining process where one (1) has a hole cut through, and the other has a boss that symmetrically fits in the hole 14. Coining – the process of inducing plastic flow by subjecting the metal to a sufficiently high-stress work, similar to coin-making 15. Peening – the process of repeatedly delivering blows to a material, which improves the material's compressive stress, relieves it of tensile stress, and encourages strain hardening 16. Burnishing – plastic deformation of a material's surface through repeated sliding with another object, making a rough surface smoother 17. Die Hobbing – a deformation process where a hardened hob continuously presses on a metal supported by a mold, creating a dent in or reshaping the material 18. Thread Rolling – a rolling process that allows threads to form (i.e., screws, nuts and bolts) 19. Roll Forming – a rolling process where a strip of sheet metal is shaped and bent by multiple rollers 20. Drawing – the process of pulling the metal into a desired shape 21. Hemming and Seaming a. Hemming – a folding process used to improve a metal's finish, hide imperfections, or reinforce its edges b. Seaming – a folding process used for tight sealing (i.e., tin cans), also used in amusement park cars and the automotive industry. 22. Flanging – a deformation process where a sheet metal is bent at 90° 23. Shearing – the process of fracturing the metal using two (2) cutting edges a. Slitting – a shearing process of cutting a material through a series of slits b. Blanking and Piercing – a shearing process where a metal is punched out using a punch and die i. Blanking requires the punched-out material (i.e., a blank) ii. Piercing requires the material where the blank came from 1. Dinking – a specialized piercing process developed for softer metals, where a beveled hollow punch is used to pierce the metal c. Lancing – a shearing process where the cut material is not completely cut out, allowing it to be bent and shaped while still attached 24. Nibbling – the process of repeated hole-punching on a metal that allows for cutting contours 25. Perforating – a punching process where multiple small holes are simultaneously punched out 26. Embossing – a stamping process where a raised or sunken relief is produced onto a material 27. Shell Drawing – a drawing process where a material is drawn out really long and narrow and is used for making containers and covers 28. High-Energy Rate Forming – a drawing process where a material is forced into shape by high energy discharges, such as explosion shockwaves, electrode, and electromagnetic manipulations Nanomaterials (Salomão, 2023) The first nanomaterials were formed after the primordial burst (i.e., Big Bang) found in early meteorites. Nature evolved the development of nanostructures, evident in seashells, smoke particles, and bones. Michael Faraday first synthesized colloidal gold particles in 1857. 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 18 of 20  IT2310 Precipitated and fumed silica nanoparticles, as substitutes for ultrafine carbon black for rubber, were manufactured and sold in the US and Germany in the 1940s Metallic nanopowders for magnetic tapes were developed in the 1960s and 1970s Granqvist and Buhrmn first created nanocrystals using the popular inert-evaporation technique in 1976 Nanophase engineering today rapidly expands in various structural and functional materials (inorganic and organic) for various mechanical, catalytic, electric, magnetic, optical, and electronic functions (Alagarasi, 2011) Properties Incredibly small Used widely in optoelectronics Various forms lend various applications Classifications According to Dimension 1. Three-dimensional – nanomaterials whose three (3) dimensions exceed the nanoparticle range (i.e., 1–50 nm) Examples: bulk materials 2. Two-dimensional – nanomaterials which have two (2) dimensions exceeding the nanoparticle range Examples: nanofilms or thin-film multilayers and nanosheets 3. One-dimensional – nanomaterials which have one (1) dimension exceeding the nanoparticle range Examples: nanowires, nanorods and nanotubes 4. Zero-dimensional – nanomaterials whose three (3) dimensions never exceed the nanoparticle range Examples: nanoparticles (spherical, cuboid, polygonal) According to Origin 1. Natural – nanomaterials made from organic compounds Examples: protein molecules, viruses, natural colloids, and mineral clay and materials 2. Artificial – nanomaterials deliberately prepared through a well-defined mechanical and fabrication process (Bose, n.d.) Examples: quantum dots and carbon nanotubes According to Structural Configuration 1. Carbon-based – nanomaterials whose carbon base allows the formation of hollow spherical, ellipsoid, or tubular configurations 2. Metal-based – nanomaterials that have metal ions in the composition, creating tightly packed conductive nanoparticles, such as quantum dots 3. Dendrimers – nanomaterials that have highly-branched macromolecules, but their measurements are still restricted at a nano level 4. Composites – multiphase solid materials that have nanoparticles in their makeup 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 19 of 20  IT2310 Writing References Brown, T. E., Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C., Woodward, P., & Stoltzfus, M. E. (2015). Chemistry: The Central Science. Prentice Hall. Dk. (2020). Super simple chemistry: The Ultimate Bitesize Study Guide. National Geographic Books. FuseSchool - Global Education. (2013, May 23). The functional group concept explained | Organic Chemistry | FuseSchool [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nMTQKBn2Iss Gaffney, J., & Marley, N. (2017). General Chemistry for Engineers. Elsevier. Iavicoli, Ivo & Leso, Veruscka & Fontana, Luca & Calabrese, Edward. (2018). Nanoparticle Exposure and Hormetic Dose–Responses: An Update. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19. 10.3390/ijms19030805. Interactive timeline of metal processes, heat treatments, surface technology - Bodycote. (n.d.). https://www.bodycote.com/history-of-metal/ Makin Metals Powder (UK) Ltd. (n.d.). History of Metals Timeline Infographic. Makin Metal Powders. https://149842070.v2.pressablecdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/History-of-Metals-Timeline- Infographic.jpg Materials Science - a Chalmers Area of Advance. (2016, February 24). What is materials science? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_cUEjPtVlIM NanoScience Instruments (n.d.). Scanning electron microscopy. https://www.nanoscience.com/technology/sem-technology/ Petrucci, R. H., Petrucci, R., Herring, F. G., Madura, J., & Bissonnette, C. (2017). General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications. Pearson Education. Publishing, W., & Swanson, J. (2020). Everything you need to ace chemistry in one big fat notebook. Workman Publishing Company. Sinex, S. A., Schlegel, P. N., & Johnson, S. P. (2017). General Chemistry for Engineers in the 21st Century: A Materials Science approach. MRS Advances. https://doi.org/10.1557/adv.2017.40 Salomão, A. (2023, February 28). What are nanomaterials and why are they important? Mind the Graph Blog. https://mindthegraph.com/blog/what-are-nanomaterials Warwick (n.d.). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Lifted and modified from https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/physics/current/postgraduate/regs/mpagswarwick/ex5/techniques/st ructural/tem/ 05 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 20 of 20