Material Fallacies PDF

MATERIAL FALLACIES  Logical Fallacies Objectives:  To identify the different kinds of logical fallacies;  To obtain an appreciative understanding of the subtleties involved in fallacious reasoning; and  To know how to detect fallacious statements and invalid reasoning or a...

MATERIAL FALLACIES  Logical Fallacies Objectives:  To identify the different kinds of logical fallacies;  To obtain an appreciative understanding of the subtleties involved in fallacious reasoning; and  To know how to detect fallacious statements and invalid reasoning or argument and apply counterclaims against false claims. Review Activity - How do you define truth in the context of Metaphysics? - How does truth affect your relationship with your fellowmen who have no similar beliefs and practices as yours? - Is truth necessary to live a meaningful life? Activity Introduction What is logical fallacy? A fallacy is an error of reasoning. These are flawed statements that often sound true Logical fallacies are often used to strengthen an argument, but if the reader detects them the argument can backfire, and damage the writer’s credibility Introduction The word “fallacy” derives from the Latin word fallere meaning, “to deceive, to trip, to lead into error or to trick.” The word also derives from the Greek phelos, meaning “deceitful.” Introduction Most of the fallacies have its origin from Aristotle. But here we treat both Aristotle’s and non-Arestotelian fallacies.  Why study logical fallacies? Itis important to develop logical fallacy detection skills in your own writing, as well as others’. Think of this as “intellectual kung-fu: the art of intellectual self defense.” (Logical Fallacies Handlist)  Types of logical fallacies? A. The first set of fallacies is linguistic, namely those dealing with a play on words or an abuse of language. B. The second set pertains to appeal to human susceptibility rather than to the point at issue (argumentum ad rem).  A. Linguistic Fallacies 1. Accent 2. Amphibology 3. Equivocation 4. Emotive Language and ambiguity 5. Figure of Speech 6. Composition 7. Division Accent One commits the fallacy of accent by shifting emphasis or punctuation in a statement, thus altering its meaning as well. Ex. A Russian prisoner sought his release from a Siberian prison by appealing to the czar for pardon. The czar returned the unpunctuated reply: ‘Pardon impossible to be executed’ with execution intended meaning, but the jailer read it with the following accent: ‘Pardon-impossible to be executed’; consequently the prisoner was released. Accent (Another example:) Traffic sign 1: ‘Children-Go Slow,’ may be read, ‘Children Go Slow’, in the case of the former the driver is directed to go slowly but in the case of the latter, the children. Traffic sign 2: ‘Slow-Cattle Crossing,’ but may be emphasized, ‘Slow cattle-crossing’; in the first instance, the driver is instructed to drive slowly but in the second, it appears that the cattle are slow in crossing the highway. Amphibology (Amphiboly) A statement which lends itself to confusion by expressing more than a single meaning commits the fallacy of amphibology. -not done due to a misplaced accent, but that a dual or multiple interpretation is inherent in the argument, rendering it susceptible to more than one interpretation… Amphibology (Amphiboly) Example In a newspaper: ‘For sale: convertible car by a teacher with a damaged top,’ Or ‘For sale: a carriage for a baby with a damaged bottom.’ This is due to a limited space, dangling or misplaced modifiers are frequently placed… Amphibology (Amphiboly) Example A sign on a dance hall: ‘Clean and decent dancing every night except Sunday’ Although its intended meaning is, no dancing is held on Sunday, the intimation is that on Sunday, a depraved type is found. Equivocation When one uses a word containing two different meanings but gives the impression that the ambiguous term imparts a single connotation. Often, but not necessarily, an attempt to deceive is implied. Ituses the same term in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings. Example 1: Feathers are light, Light comes from the sun, Therefore, feathers come from the sun. Example 2: Star is a heavenly body. Sharon Cuneta is a star. Thus, she is a heavenly body. Equivocation Example 3: The right should be enforced by law, Voting in this country is a right, Therefore, voting in this country should be enforced by law. Example 4: No cat has nine tails, Any cat has one tail more than no cat, Therefore, any cat has ten tails. Emotive Language and Ambiguity This fallacy is committed when one uses terms which are ill-defined or carry no meaning whatever except an emotive one, that is, the only apparent value which the term possesses is to incite or emotionally disturb one’s opponent. Terms such as: mother, (the average person’s conception of mother is closer to ‘motherhood,’ for he experiences warm feelings when the word is used..), ‘God,’ ‘flag,’ ‘Democracy,’ ‘father,’ ‘country,’ and on Figure of Speech Fallacy Words may be abused in still another manner, namely, by verbal inflection. Although this is not a common error in the English language because of the minimal use of inflection, it is, nevertheless, still possible, particularly by playing upon words which have similar suffixes-words which sound or seem alike, yet differ in meaning. Example: A man who writes is called a writer, one who fishes is termed a fisher, one who runs is a runner, one who flies is a flier, one who sings is a singer, but is one who typewrites a typewriter? Figure of Speech Fallacy Another example: A competent surgeon may advise you: ‘My friend, an appendectomy in your case is highly desirable.’ Does this mean that you will relish the idea with enthusiasm and in fact desire it? No, it merely means that you ought to desire it, not that you actually will desire it. Composition This fallacy occurs when one reasons that what is true of each part taken separately is necessarily true of the composite whole. This fallacy result only when the whole is a composite and the parts are not independent but relative to the whole. Example: She’s the most beautiful girl in the world because she has the most beautiful parts: such as the most beautiful legs, the most beautiful hands, the most beautiful arms, the most beautiful face, the most beautiful hair, and the most beautiful torso. As a composite, it would probably turn out to be grotesque rather than beautiful. (grotesque-a style of decorative art characterized by fanciful or fantastic human and  Division This fallacy is committed when one reasons that what is true of the composite is necessarily true of each part considered separately. This fallacy is the converse of the fallacy of composition. Fallacy of Division assumes that what is true of the whole is true for the parts. Example 1: That car is blue. Therefore, its engine is blue. Example 2: Your family is weird. That means that you are weird, too. (Imong lolo baug; imong papa baug; ikaw pud baug) (apelyedo ra diay B. Certain material fallacies that appeal to human susceptibility rather than to the point at issue These irrelevant appeals carry the following Latin names: 1.) Argumentum ad populum, 2.) argumentum ad misericordiam, 3.) argumentum ad verecundiam 4.) argumentum ad hominem, 5.) argumentum ad vaculum, 6.) argumentum ad ignorantiam, 7.) argumentum ad crumenam, 8.) argumentum ad invidiam, 9.) argumentum ad captandum. 1.) Argumentum Ad Populum, The ad populum argument is one which shifts emphasis from the issue under discussion to an appeal to the populace, i.e. to emotions, prejudices, feelings, and other factors capable of moving the masses to agreement. The speeches of Hitler were laden with an appeal to the populace; people are moved, he claimed, by feeling, not by logic, consequently he ruled them through fear and wishful thinking. 1.) Argumentum Ad Populum Appeal to the Popular- Urging the hearers to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it. Example 1: The majority of people like soda. Therefore, soda is good. Example 2: Everyone else is believing on it. Why shouldn't you? 1.) Argumentum Ad Populum - “Bandwagon Approach” - “It must be cool because everyone is doing it… - “90 percent of computer users choose Macs” - (sometimes called Appeal to Popularity) 2.) Argumentum Ad Misericordiam Avariation of the ad populum, is the error of by- passing logic and the point under discussion by appealing to pity or sympathy. Example 1: Please accept me in your company because I have many mouths to feed. Example 2: Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline. 3.) Argumentum Ad Verecundiam Appeals instead to prestige, awe, respect, reverence, etc. he commits the ad verecundiam error. Example 1: Men of distinction drink Gatorade. (This mode of reasoning is effective for many salesmen.) Example 2: A real estate salesman, told by a prospective customer that the house he was selling for P3M was overpriced by P800K, replied, ‘But this is a prestige address!’ 3.) Argumentum Ad Verecundiam Appealsinstead to prestige, awe, respect, reverence, etc. he commits the ad verecundiam error. Example 3: To accept the arguments of one man over another merely because the first is a graduate of Ateneo University and the second a graduate of University of Mindanao is to commit this error. 4.) Argumentum Ad Hominem When one shifts his argument from the thesis under discussion and directs it against the person of his opponent, he commits the ad hominem fallacy. It is a direct attack upon the personality of one’s opponent, an attempt at assassination of reputation and personality. It involves ‘mudslinging’ as well as other base tactics resulting in defamation of character. Example 1: My opponent, John Doe, is obviously wrong in his contention, and it is hardly necessary for me to bother to discredit the thesis of this Communist foreigner who has the audacity to challenge an American idea; I wager he is no more than a savage judging from the nation which he represents; his uncouth, ill-educated, and broken English are proof enough that his argument is not worthy of consideration. 4.) Argumentum Ad Hominem AdHominem: Latin for “To the man” – pointing out a negative characteristic to support one’s argument Example2: How could Mary know anything about cars? She’s a woman! 5.) Argumentum Ad Baculum When one’s argument rests, not upon the persuasiveness of logic, but on force, he commits the ad baculum fallacy, the force appealed to may be overt and obviously manifest or covert in the form of disguised coercion. The word ‘baculum’ literally means club, rod. Example 1: The father said to his son, “If you don’t believe in Santa, he will not bring you anything for Christmas.” Example 2: The attitude of a dictator who threatens those who disagree with his policies with imprisonment. 5.) Argumentum Ad Baculum Appeal to Force - Telling the hearers that something bad will happen to him if he does not accept the argument. Example 5: If you don't want to get beaten up, you will agree with what I say. Example 6: Convert or die. 6.) Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam Pleading ignorance This constitutes the fallacy of assuming that merely because one’s opponent is incapable of disproving a thesis, it is by virtue of the fact deemed true. The burden of proof always fall on the person who advances the thesis, not on the individual who stands in opposition to it. Example 1: If I claim that there are living beings on the sun who can withstand its heat, it is my responsibility to substantiate my claim; merely because you cannot furnish evidence to disprove my case. 6.) Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam Appeal to ignorance – it suggests that since there is no proof to the contrary, then something must be true. Example 2: We can say that there is no life after death because thus far no dead has come back and proves that there is. 7.) Argumentum Ad Crumenam An argument appealing to purse; in practice it connotes an argument which appeals to a person’s interest, particularly his vested interests. Example: Ordinarily, Socialistic arguments lack cogency for a Capitalist, for he stands to lose considerably whenever Socialistic measures are enacted by the government. Conversely, arguments favoring Capitalism appear to possess a greater potency than they inherently contain, since they favor the financial outlook of the Capitalist. 8.) Argumentum Ad Invidiam An appeal to man’s lower passions, his prejudices, his biases, etc. Human reason is vulnerable to passion and prejudices; consequently, an argument which preys upon a person’s prejudices is one which is readily agreed to; the logically incredible often makes a person susceptible to credulity when his passions and prejudices are involved. 9.) Argumentum Ad Captandum The argumentum ad captandum or the argumentum captandum vulgus is an argument designed to please the masses, to attract the crowds, it is an argument whose basic attraction is that of pleasing, an argument directed to please the rabble. Its strength lie in the argument’s ability to be winsome to the masses, rather than any appeal to a coherent set of facts or logical reasoning.  C. The Following Fallacies are treated under the general heading, miscellaneous: 1.)accident (dicto simpliciter or secundum quid), 2.) irrelevance (ignoration elenchi), 3.) non sequitur 4.) false cause (post hoc), 5.) compound questions (multiple questions), 6.) false analogy, 7.) special pleading, 8.) genetic error, 9.) misplaced authority 10.) vicious abstraction, 11.) insufficient evidence, 12.) contradictory premises, 13.) contrary to fact conditional, 14.) selected instances (hasty generalization), 15.) tu quoque, 16.) pathetic fallacy, 17.) circular reasoning or begging the question (petitio principi). 1.) Accident (dicto simpliciter or secundum quid), Example 1: In as much as theft is a crime (general rule of which a notable exception is found in the laws of Sparta), and since the Spartans encouraged stealing, therefore the Spartans encouraged crime. (Theft was not a criminal act in Sparta; consequently they did not encourage crime, and to infer that they did, is to commit the fallacy of accident.) 1.) Accident (dicto simpliciter or secundum quid), Example 2: ‘He who kills another person is a murderer.’ Since Dr. John Doe’s patient died while undergoing surgery, Dr. Doe is a murderer. Ordinarily,he who kills another commits murder but there are exceptional cases to which the rule was never intended to apply, such as the executioner, surgeon, soldier, etc. 2.) Fallacy of Irrelevance (ignoration elenchi) One commits the fallacy of irrelevance by proving or disproving the wrong point. Example 1: Instead of proving A, B is proved; or instead of disproving C, D is disproved, otherwise the argument may be quite intact, consistent, and cogent. Example 2: Instead of a big bully of a fellow proving that he had a right to exchange suits with a smaller boy, he proves that the exchange is advantageous to both by showing that the suit the little fellow received in the exchange is the better bargain, is in better condition, made of better material, costlier, fits better, and is much more becoming, when logically he should be proving that he had every right to force the exchange. 3.) Non Sequitor (Does Not Follow) This fallacy is committed when one’s conclusion does not follow logically from his premises or when two consecutive ideas are incongruous or disconnected. Example 1: Roses are red. Violets are blue. I love my teacher. My father has a horse. Example 2: I enjoy basking in the sunshine, therefore I like fish. Example 3: Episcopacy is of Scripture origin; the Church of England is the only Episcopal Church in England, ergo, the Church established is the Church that is to be supported. 3.) Non Sequitor (Does Not Follow) Conclusion doesn’t logically follow the premise Example 4: Men are human. Mary is human. Therefore, Mary is a man.). 4.) False Cause (Post Hoc ergo propter hoc) – (after this and therefore in consequence of this) To argue that merely because one thing precedes another in time, it is therefore the cause of it, is to commit the post hoc error. Example 1: A man has had a black cat cross his path earlier in the day, and later has been fired from his employment, he concludes that his dismissal was caused by the black cat., (solely on the grounds that the cat incident was temporally prior to his dismissal is to be guilty of the post hoc fallacy.) 4.) False Cause (Post Hoc ergo propter hoc) – (after this and therefore in consequence of this) Example 2: “The seventh Durhams,” said the Colonel, “were in the trenches when there came rolling towards them the dreaded poison gas. Men were in front of it and falling. I had with me twelve signallers, and I said to them, ‘It is no use running; come up on the parapet and sing a hymn.’ They stood up and sang Abide With Me. The cloud of death disappeared, and not a man was affected.” 4.) False Cause (Post Hoc ergo propter hoc) – (after this and therefore in consequence of this) Example The arguer infers that because 3: one event follows another, the first event must be the cause of the second event. Causation without correlation Example 4: The rooster crowed, the sun came up. Therefore, the rooster made the sun come up.  5.) Compound Questions (Multiple Questions) This particular fallacy is called by Aristotle ‘many questions,’ and by Cardinal Newman, ‘poisoning the wells.’ The error is committed when an individual poses a question which presupposes a prior question to have been raised and satisfactorily answered. Example 1: Lawyer: “Have you stopped beating your wife?” (And requiring a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer. If the witness answers ‘no,’ then he will be admitting that he beat her in the past but has discontinued the practice.)  5.) Compound Questions (Multiple Questions) Example 2: “Only a vicious person would oppose me.” Example 3: “Have you stopped passing bad checks?” Example 4: “How do you account for your stupidity?” Example 5: “Who made God?” Example 5: “What time was it before time began?” Example 6: “What place is it where space end?” Example 7: “What was God doing before He created anything?”  6.) False Analogy The analogy per se is not necessarily considered a fallacy; it is so regarded only when the situation is not analogous. An analogy is an argument which runs along the same logical lines of a second argument whose truth has already been accepted; the theory being that if one line of reasoning is accepted as true then a second which parallels it logically must also be said. Example: “It is evident that women should be elected to political office since government is similar to national housekeeping; and in this respect it is obvious that women have much more experience than men.”  7.) Special Pleading (Neglected Aspect) Thisfallacy is like ‘stacking a deck of cards’ so that no desirable cards are dealt to one’s opponent, while all of the preferred cards are dealt to oneself. (NB: Every story has two sides, but when a person presents only one side of the story [ordinarily done by any lawyer] to the complete neglect of anhy fact which might favor his opposition, he commits the fallacy known as ‘special pleading’ or ‘neglected aspect.’ Example: “Organized religion should be abolished on the grounds that it has incorporated masses of fables and superstitions; It has been believed in by the weak and the ignorant; it has been manipulated by the enlightened for selfish political objectives; it has been the tool of vested interests to oppose social reform and scientific progress; therefore, it should be repudiated.”  8.) Genetic Error Totrace an argument to its source and thereby assume that one has either proved or disproved a point is to commit the fallacy known as the ‘genetic error.’ Example 1: George Fox founded a religion. He became insane. The religion he founded must be false. Example 2: An insane person were to dash into your room shouting, ‘H2O is water!’ (Could you contend that his statement is false because the person asserting it is abnormal?)  9.) Misplaced Authority Usually it is not the authority who commits the fallacy but another individual who cites the authority as proof in a field in which the authority is not competent. Example: An individual who argues that God exists on the premise that Albert Einstein believed in God commits the fallacy of misplaced authority since Einstein is not a Philosopher of religion. 9.) Misplaced Authority Using a celebrity or authority figure’s name to support an issue which if not really his or her expertise. “Katie Perry thinks the killer should be pardoned.” FALSE AUTHORITY. Often called... Using a suspicious, incredible source to defend a conclusion  10.) Vicious Abstraction Toremove or isolate a text from its context, thereby altering the logic or meaning of a statement, is to commit the fallacy of ‘vicious abstraction.’ Example: They said “Money is the root of all evil,” whereas St. Paul said: “The love of money is the root of all evil.”  11.) Insufficient Evidence When due to insufficient facts, deficient either in quality or quantity, one is unable legitimately to arrive at a conclusion but does so despise the lack of necessary evidence, he is guilty of committing the fallacy of ‘insufficient evidence.’ Example 1: If a district attorney were to seek a murder conviction against a man merely on the grounds that the gun used in the crime was registered to the defendant, and that the defendant could have been in the neighborhood at the approximate time of the murder, the judge would dismiss the case on the grounds of insufficient evidence. Weighty conclusions are unwarranted on the basis of feeble and petty facts.  12.) Contradictory Premises (Self-Contradiction) That which is self-contradictory is ipso facto false; hence two premises which are mutually contradictory cancel each other out, thereby rendering any legitimate conclusion impossible. Example 1: ‘What would happen if an irresistible force met an immovable object?’ (Both cannot coexist simultaneously.) Example2:‘Can God make a thirty year old tree in three seconds?’ Example 3: ‘How would you interpret the dream of a man who believed in dreams, but had a dream that dreams were not to be trusted?’  13.) Contrary to Fact Conditional Toalter a fact and then draw a conclusion from such premises is to commit the ‘contrary to fact conditional error.’ One is not entitled to arrive at any conclusion once he has changed the facts; such an alteration is tantamount to soaring into the realm of fantasy from fact;… Example 1: ‘I met with an accident because I took a short cut this morning on my way to work. If I had taken my regular route then I would not have had an accident.’  14.) Selected Instances (Hasty Generalization) When one arrives at a generalization on the basis of insufficient or an unrepresentative number of instances, then he is said to commit the fallacy of ‘hasty generalization.’ Example1: A person may find himself at a gathering where diplomats are present in sizable numbers; on being introduced to the first diplomat, he may discover that he is wearing an ascot tie. The second diplomat encountered is also wearing an ascot tie; the third, fourth, fifth, and each successive one up to a dozen; consequently he concludes, but only by way of the hasty generalization fallacy, ‘All diplomats wear ascot ties.’ 14.) Selected Instances (Hasty Generalization) Example 2: The last two mass murderers were from Michigan. Obviously, people from Michigan are dangerous.  15.) Tu Quoque (Thou Also) When an individual attempts a logical justification of his position or behavior on the grounds that another person is doing the same, he is said to commit a ‘tu quoque’ fallacy or argument. Example 1: A child may take issue with his father when ordered to go to bed, by arguing that he also should be permitted to stay up late since his father is not retiring early. The child does not realize that his situation is not equivalent to his father’s, one difference being that a child’s sleep requirements are greater.  16.) Pathetic Fallacy When one becomes anthropomorphic in his thinking, that is, when he ascribes human or personal qualities to nonhuman objects, his is said to commit the ‘pathetic fallacy.’ Some speakers and writers will at times be carried away emotionally and speak of the ‘cruel sea’ or the ‘pitiless and raging fire’ as if these natural phenomena had human characteristics and feelings. Example 1: A woman from short vacation remarked to her husband who neglected her plant, ‘Look at her drooping leaves, she must be in excruciating agony and in dire thirst from lack of water.’  17.) Circular Reasoning or Begging the Question (Petitio Principi) One is said to commit this fallacy when offering the original thesis which was to be proved as final proof; in other words, that which requires proof is assumed as its own proof. Example 1: A person may attempt to prove A by evidence B, but since B is not self-supporting or ultimate, therefore stands in need of proof, then B is supported by C, but C is inconclusive and must be substantiated, whereupon A is used in support of C. The circle is now complete; A is ultimately used to prove itself.  17.) Circular Reasoning or Begging the Question (Petitio Principi) Example 2: Doorman: ‘May I see your invitation?’ Smith: ‘I am very sorry, I mislaid mine; but Mr. Jones, who is standing beside me will vouch for me.’ Jones: ‘I shall be very happy to vouch for Mr. Smith.’ Doorman: ‘Very well. May I see your invitation, Mr. Jones?’ Jones: ‘I’m terribly sorry, but I don’t seem to have brought mine along with me, but Mr. Doe, who is particularly well known in these circles, will testify on my behalf. Doe: ‘I shall be more that happy to speak on behalf of my good friend, Mr. Jones.’ Doorman: ‘May I then see your invitation?’ Doe: ‘I don’t seem to have it with me, but I assure you that I do have one. Mr. Smith, you saw it the other day, won’t you be good to confirm my statement to the doorman?’ Smith: ‘Indeed I will. I give you my word, Mr. Doorman.  More Fallacies 1.“Slippery Slope” - a fallacious argument built on the supposition that a small step will lead to a larger chain of events. “If you don’t stop smoking, then you are going to start shooting heroin.” - “Marijuana is the gateway to drug.” More Fallacies 1.“Slippery Slope” Cont…  More Fallacies 2. Begging the question: A is true because A is true... “chocolate is healthy because it is good for you” 3.Straw Man: a fallacy of distraction – an irrelevant conclusion (Ex: How could he possibly cheat on his taxes? He’s such a great father!)  More Fallacies 4.) Guilt by association: a false correlation between two events (9/11- Sandy Hook shooting) 5.) Faulty Cause/effect: Ex: “we’ve been in business 50 years – That makes us the best! 6.) False needs: “If parents want intelligent children, they must buy Baby Mozart!” More Fallacies 7) Either/Or fallacy – aka False Dilemma... “You’re either part of the solution or part of the problem” More Fallacies 8. Poisoning the Well Presenting negative information about a person before he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument. Example: Do not trust him, he will just hurt you. More Fallacies 9. Begging the Question Assuming the thing to be true that you are trying to prove. It is circular. Example: God exists because the Bible says so. It is true because it is not false. More Fallacies 10. Guilt By Association Rejecting an argument or claim because the person proposing it likes something which is disliked by another. Example 1: Sir Alex teaches logic. Therefore I hate logic. Example 2: Your friend is a thief. Therefore, I cannot trust you. More Fallacies 11. Non-Contradiction The argument is self-contradictory and cannot possibly be true. The argument asserts its contradictory statement Quiz on these fallacies on Friday!!!!!  In groups of 2-4, search websites, newspapers, advertisements, etc. to find arguments that may contain logical fallacies. Find two logical fallacies to share with the class on Thursday or Friday  In conclusion, always be on the lookout for faulty reasoning! If you took notes and completed the activity, you are a genius! Congratulations