Main Points on Pest Control PDF

**Order** **Characteristics** **Examples** **Metamorphosis** Thysanura Wingless insects with chewing mouthparts, feed on fabrics, paper, paste, and books. Silverfish, firebrats None Orthoptera Insects with two pairs of wings and chewing mouthparts, cause damage in both nymph and adult stages. Grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches Incomplete Dermaptera Medium-sized insects with non-poisonous pinchers, chewing mouthparts, two pairs of wings. Earwigs Incomplete Hemiptera Insects with two pairs of wings folded flat, membranous half-opaque wings, beak for sucking. Stink bugs, bed bugs Incomplete **Pesticide uses excluded from the Structural licence:** - Fumigant gases, chloropicrin - Herbicides - Termiticides - Pesticides to control pests of plants inside greenhouses and buildings - Pesticides from aircraft - Pesticides on rights-of-ways of controlled access highways, roads, rail lines, hydro power lines, or pipe lines - Pesticides in water extermination - Use of pesticides in treed areas of more than one hectare - Control of vertebrate pests not in the vicinity of buildings, structures, machines, vehicles, or persons ### **Insect Anatomy** - Adult insects have three major body regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. - They possess three pairs of legs, one pair of antennae, and one or two pairs of wings if present. - The exoskeleton of an insect covers the entire body, providing protection, rigidity, and support for internal body parts. - Insects breathe through spiracles (pores) in their exoskeleton. - The insect head contains sensory organs like eyes, antennae, and mouth parts. - Eyes can be simple or compound, capable of detecting light, movement, shapes, and colors. - The thorax of an insect carries the legs and wings, with legs adapted for various activities and wings for flight. - **Beetles and weevils (Coleoptera)** have two pairs of wings and chewing mouthparts. - **Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera)** have two pairs of wings covered in tiny scales. - **Flies, mosquitoes, and gnats (Diptera)** have one pair of wings and sponging, piercing, or sucking mouthparts. - **Bees, wasps, and ants (Hymenoptera)** have chewing and lapping mouthparts - **Key Arthropods**: **Ticks**: Feed by sucking animal blood and can transmit diseases like Lyme **Key Characteristics of Arachnida** **Characteristics** **Description** ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ Eight legs Distinctive feature of arachnids Two body regions Head (cephalothorax) and abdomen Five development stages Egg, larva, two nymph stages, adult Feeding stages Larva, nymph, and adult are all feeding stages Habitat All stages are found in the same habitat **Key Characteristics of Centipedes and Millipedes** Arthropod Characteristics ------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Centipedes One pair of legs per body segment, can inflict painful bites Millipedes Two pairs of legs per body segment, feed on fungus and decaying plant material **Key Characteristics of Sowbugs** Characteristics Description ----------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- Oval shape Hard outer shell made up of plates Habitat Live in damp habitats, feed on decaying plant materials Metamorphosis Gradual metamorphosis with at least 20 instars before reaching adult stage **Bird Pests** Harbor disease organisms such as Histoplasmosis, Ornithosis, and Salmonellosis **Rodents Reproduction**: Female mice can produce around 8 litters per lifetime, with each litter having 5-6 young Norway rats can produce 4-7 litters per lifetime, with each litter containing 5-12 young **Key Practices for Pest Prevention** - Installing door sweeps or thresholds at exterior entry doors - Applying silicone or acrylic latex caulking into cracks and crevices - Sealing utility openings with caulk, cement, or steel wool - Repairing leaks and adding screens to vents - Proper sanitation and housekeeping practices **Key Quality Management Programs** - **Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP)**: A food safety management system that uses process controls to minimize food safety risks. - **Food Safety and Enhancement Program (FSEP)**: CFIA\'s approach to encourage and support the development of HACCP systems in food establishments. - Microbial insecticides contain bacteria and fungi to control pests. - **Permethrin** is an example of a contact insecticide. - **Boric acid** is a stomach poison found in ant baits. - **Diatomaceous earth** is a silica dust used to kill crawling pests. - **Bacillus thuringiensis** (B.t.) is a common microbial pesticide. - **Chemical Repellents**: Designed to keep pests away from causing damage, can be non-poisonous or poisonous. Examples include **sticky pastes and putrescent egg solids**. - **Anticoagulant Rodenticides**: Cause rodents to die from internal bleeding by preventing blood clotting. Examples include **warfarin, chlorophacinone, and bromadiolone**. **Physical/Mechanical Practices** Examples include sealing cracks, installing screens, or using light traps to manage pest populations. - **Trapping, Repelling, and Killing Pests**: Methods include using barriers, electrocuting light traps, rodent glue boards, snap traps, and more. - **Barriers**: Utilize downward air current units, plastic strips on doorways, netting under bridges, rodent guards on rail tracks, tactile repellents, and maintaining a buffer around building walls. - **Trapping Devices**: Include electrocuting light traps, fly paper, rodent glue boards, snap traps, live traps, wasp meat and sugar traps, and earwig moisture traps. - **Repellent Devices**: Examples are plastic owls, ultrasonic sound repellant devices, and \'anti-bug\' yellow lights outdoors. - **Utilizing Various Elements**: Heat, cold, sound, electricity, light, and radiation-producing equipment can be used to kill or repel pests. - **Vacuum Cleaners**: Heavy-duty vacuum cleaners with HEPA filters and crevice attachments can effectively remove pests like spiders and webbing. **Grouping by Mode of Action** **By Inherent Properties:** - Route of entry: Contact or systemic - Selectivity: Selective or non-selective - Residual effectiveness: Residual or non-residual **By Effect on the Pest:** - Attractant - Chemosterilant - Desiccant - Feeding stimulus - Growth regulators - Repellent - Toxicant (neurotoxin, acute toxicant, anticoagulant, fumigant) **Types of Pesticides for Vertebrate Control** ============================================== **Chemical Repellents** - Examples include putrescent egg solids. - Applied by painting or spraying on trees and shrubs to repel rodents, rabbits, and deer - Example: Thiram is a chemical repellent for rodents **Anticoagulant Rodenticides** - Rodents consuming enough bait will die from internal bleeding in three to four days - Rodenticides may be placed in burrows to prevent access by pets or people - Two types of anticoagulant rodenticides: multiple feeding and single feeding - **multiple feeding rodenticides**: warfarin, chlorophacinone, and diphacinone - **single feeding rodenticides**: bromadiolone and brodifacoum - **Single feeding rodenticides cause death six to ten days** after a single feeding and require multiple bait placements with small amounts. - Continuous supply of bait needed for multiple feeding rodenticides until rodent feeding stops. - Single feeding rodenticides replenished every seven days until feeding stops. ### **Chemical Family Grouping** Organophosphates and carbamates are chemical families known for their neurotoxic effects. ### **Site of Action Grouping** - Site of action: Location in the pest where the pesticide affects - Understanding site of action groups prevents pest resistance **Ontario\'s Cosmetic Pesticides Ban** - **Prohibited Use of Pesticides**: Pesticides cannot be used for cosmetic purposes unless the active ingredients are on the Allowable List. - **Exceptions to the Ban**: Certain exceptions allow the use of Class B, C, or D pesticides if registered for specific purposes and authorized by an exterminator\'s license. - **Structural Extermination Exception**: Allows licensed exterminators to use prohibited pesticides for pest control on farm animals or disease-carrying pests in specific locations. **Key Institutions/Organizations** - **Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA)**: Responsible for regulating pesticides in Canada and defining biopesticides and low-risk pesticides. - **Federal Registration**: All pesticides used for cosmetic purposes must be federally registered to ensure safety and efficacy. **Key Dates** - **Implementation of Cosmetic Pesticides Ban**: The ban on cosmetic pesticide use was put in place to protect human health and the environment from unnecessary pesticide exposure. **Key Exceptions** - **Integral Structural Extermination**: Allows the use of prohibited pesticides for pest control integral to structural extermination. - **Specific Conditions**: Prohibited pesticides can be used if registered for prescribed use and authorized by a licensed exterminator. **Facts to Memorize** - Ontario has a cosmetic pesticides ban in place to reduce risks. - Only pesticides with active ingredients on the Allowable List can be used for cosmetic purposes. - Class B, C, or D pesticides with specific active ingredients can be used for cosmetic purposes. - All pesticides must be federally registered and used according to label directions. **Key Terms/Concepts** - **Cosmetic Pesticides Ban**: Legislation aimed at reducing potential risks from the cosmetic uses of pesticides, restricting the non-essential use of pesticides for aesthetic purposes. - **Allowable List**: List of active ingredients permitted for use in pesticides for cosmetic purposes, including biopesticides and low-risk pesticides. - **Structural Extermination**: The use of pesticides for pest control purposes in or around structures, such as buildings or homes. **Structural Extermination Notification Requirements** **Key Regulations/Legislation** - **Structural Extermination Warning Signs**: - Required for certain Class B or C fumigants and suspensions used inside a building. - Sign B must be posted on all doors leading into a building - **Land Extermination Notification**: - Required for extermination of pests on or near waste disposal sites or for arthropods that bite, sting, are venomous, or carry disease. - Public notification must be provided for certain exterminations on land. - Sign B (Warning -- Structural Extermination) is required for certain Class B or C fumigants and suspensions. - Public notification is required for land exterminations involving certain pests or arthropods. - Structural licensed exterminators must use rain-resistant, sturdy, and reusable signs. **Land Extermination Public Notification Requirements** - Examples of non-residential areas include commercial and industrial buildings, parks, playgrounds, campgrounds, golf courses, cemeteries, school grounds, and waste disposal sites. - Rural areas are defined as regions beyond the boundaries of settlements per the Planning Act or areas with fewer than 20 dwelling units within a one-kilometer radius. - Any individual planning to conduct a pesticide-based land extermination on non-residential area land must issue public notification. - This mandate applies to Structural licensed exterminators utilizing pesticides for land exterminations, such as insecticide use for controlling disease-spreading flies on waste disposal sites. - Structural exterminators engaging in pesticide use for arthropod control must notify the public unless the extermination area is very small or limited in scope. **Exemptions to Public Notice** =============================== - structural exterminators may be exempt when exterminating waste disposal sites that are inaccessible to the public. - Agricultural operations involving land exterminations for pest control purposes are generally exempt from public notice obligations **Placement of Residential Area Signs** Must be done immediately before pesticide application Must comply with specific requirements regarding format, wording, and size Must remain in place for at least 48 hours after land extermination Must be removed within 10 days from the date of extermination, unless approved for a later date by the Director under the Pesticides Act **Sign Placement**: - Must be placed conspicuously along the perimeter of the application area - Must be within 10 meters of the perimeter - Must be posted every 100 meters or less along the perimeter adjacent to public walkways, roads, or areas accessible to the public - Must be posted if another dwelling is within 100 meters from any point of the extermination site **Exemptions**: - Fences or natural barriers surrounding the entire residential property exempt the licensed exterminator from notification requirements - Signs cannot be placed on trees, fences, buildings, or signboards with other signs **Removal** The removal of \'Residential area\' signs must be done within 10 days from the date of land extermination, with a possible extension of up to 30 days if approved in writing by the Director under the Pesticides Act. **Pesticide Use Location Sign Requirements** **Notification Requirements for Land Exterminations and Structural Exterminations** =================================================================================== ### **Residential Areas** - Sign(s) must be posted immediately before pesticide use in areas with one to four detached or semi-detached houses. - Signs should be placed every 100 meters along the perimeter of the application area that is within 100 meters of another dwelling unit. - If only one sign is posted, it should be at an ordinary point of access to the application area. - Signs within 10 meters of the perimeter are considered posted along the perimeter. ### **Nonresidential Areas with Multiple Houses** - Sign(s) must be posted immediately before the application in areas with five or more detached or semi-detached houses. - Signs should be placed conspicuously at all ordinary points of access and every 100 meters along the application area. - Signs within 10 meters of the perimeter are considered posted along the perimeter. ### **Application Areas for Specific Buildings** - For apartment buildings, condominiums, long-term care homes, or hospitals, signs must be posted 24 hours to 7 days before pesticide use. - Signs should be placed every 100 meters along the perimeter and at all ordinary points of access. - Signs within 10 meters of the perimeter are considered posted along the perimeter. ### **Commercial or Industrial Buildings** - Sign(s) must be posted immediately before pesticide use in areas associated with commercial or industrial buildings. - Signs should be placed every 100 meters along the perimeter and at all ordinary points of access. - Signs within 10 meters of the perimeter are considered posted along the perimeter. ### **Educational Institutions and Daycare Facilities** - For areas associated with schools or daycare facilities, signs must be posted 24 hours to 7 days before pesticide use. - Signs should be placed every 100 meters along the perimeter and at all ordinary points of access. - Signs within 10 meters of the perimeter are considered posted along the perimeter. ### **Areas Excluded from Posting** - No posting is required for areas entirely surrounded by a natural barrier or fencing that excludes the public. - Areas like boulevards, sidewalks, or medians not abutting residential areas require signs to be posted every 100 meters along the perimeter. - Signs within 10 meters of the perimeter are considered posted along the perimeter. - Date of land extermination - Description of application area - Name of pest - Class B, C, or D pesticide name and registration number - Pesticide ingredients - Telephone number for more information - Acceptance of collect calls for long-distance numbers - Ability to provide actual extermination date if range given - Description of exception if using pesticide under a ban. **Structural Exterminator Pesticide Regulations** **Air** - Requires working with another licensed exterminator for application. - Additional person must be present for assistance in case of emergency - Locking doors before pesticide introduction. - Posting warning signs on doors. - Ensuring building is vacant of humans and animals during application. - Locking exit door after application and airing out the building before re-entry. **Use Permit**: Authorization issued by the Director under the Pesticides Act for the use of a classified pesticide product by individuals without a Structural Exterminator License. **Restrictions on the Use of Strychnine, Zinc Phosphide, and 4-Amino-Pyridine** =============================================================================== **Strychnine** In areas inaccessible to humans and non-target animals, away from food or drink sources. ---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Zinc Phosphide** Use tamper-resistant bait stations or tracking powder tubes to minimize exposure risks. **4-Amino-Pyridine** Ensure placement in areas where contact with food or drink intended for consumption is avoided. **Strychnine** Maintain a written record of each placement location for two years. **Zinc Phosphide** Record the locations where the pesticide is placed for future reference. **4-Amino-Pyridine** Keep a detailed record of the placement locations for at least two years. **Pest Control on Farm Animals** ================================ Holders of a Structural exterminator licence do not need an **Agriculture exterminator licence** for land extermination on farm animals, such as lice on cattle. Public notification requirements are waived for agricultural operations. For **waste disposal sites,** Structural licence holders can use rodenticides, avicides, or insecticides without a Landscape licence. Public notification is mandatory unless exempted, such as if the site is fenced to restrict access. An example includes controlling mammals, birds, or arthropods on these sites. **Pesticides as a Suspension in Air** Regulation: Ontario Regulation 213/07 requires safety for indoor thermal insecticidal fog. **Safety Measures:** - Notification - Remove ignition sources - Use protective breathing apparatus - Exemptions: Some industries (e.g., fumigation indoors) may qualify. **Prohibited Pesticides** - Banned Pesticides: DDT, chlordane, endrin, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordecone. - Classification: These are hazardous waste under the Environmental Protection Act. - Disposal: Contact the local Ministry of the Environment for proper procedures. - Restrictions: Limitations on use, sale, and transport apply. ### **Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act** - Regulates wildlife removal and release procedures. - Administered by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry (MNRF). - Specific policies dictate the proximity for releasing trapped wildlife like raccoons and skunks. - Example: Releasing trapped animals within close proximity of capture site within 24 hours. ### **Provincial Animal Welfare Services Act** - Administered by the Ministry of the Solicitor General, focusing on preventing cruelty to animals. - Structural exterminators must ensure humane treatment of trapped rodents and birds. - Regular monitoring and humane treatment are required for animals caught in traps. - Example: Tending to trapped animals to prevent suffering in traps. **Legislation for Wildlife Protection** ======================================= - Protects wildlife, including endangered species - Federal permits may be needed for pest control - Restrictions on shooting, trapping, and pesticide use vary by season and location - Ontario laws on vertebrate protection available on the Government of Ontario website **Peregrine Falcon Protection:** - Threatened species in Ontario, of national concern - Listed under the Endangered Species Act 2007 and Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act - Protected from harm, possession, and sale - MNR recommends a 7.5 km avicide-free zone around nests - Non-lethal pest control methods preferred - Visit the Ministry of the Environment for recovery site info **Municipal Bylaws** ==================== Municipal bylaws related to cosmetic pesticide use enacted before April 22, 2009, are no longer valid under the amended Pesticides Act. **Health Effects of Major Pesticides** **Types of Pesticides** insecticides, botanicals, pyrethroids, inorganics, organophosphates, carbamates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, insect growth regulators, petroleum products, rodenticides, anticoagulants and non-anticoagulants, avicides, and repellents. ### **Grouping by Health Effects** Factors determining overall toxicity include acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenic effects, and teratogenic effects - **Insectides:** Insecticides typically exhibit high acute toxicity to mammals. - They are more harmful to wildlife, fish, bees, and non-target organisms compared to herbicides or fungicides. **Botanical and Pyrethroid Insecticides:** - Plant-derived; pyrethrum from chrysanthemum. - Pyrethroids: Synthetic versions of pyrethrins (e.g., resmethrin). - Examples: - **Botanical:** Ryania, d-limonene - **Synthetic:** Cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, cyphenothrin, deltamethrin - **Pyrethrins and pyrethroids** act as contact poisons, targeting the insect\'s nervous system. - They disrupt nerve impulse transmission along the axon, leading to rapid paralysis of the muscle system. - Unlike organophosphates or carbamates, these compounds do not act as anti-cholinesterases. - Poisoning by botanicals is rare due to low active ingredient percentages and relatively high LD50 values. ### **Symptoms of Poisoning** - **Moderate symptoms** include a runny nose, throat irritation, dizziness, headache, and increased salivation. - **Severe symptoms** may manifest as lack of coordination, tremors, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or coma. - Allergic reactions or respiratory irritation can occur from dermal exposure or inhalation of pyrethroids. **Inorganic and Organophosphate Insecticides** **Inorganic Insecticides** ========================== **Chemical Structure:** Inorganic pesticides do not contain carbon atoms. **Examples:** Common inorganic insecticides include: - Sodium fluoride - Zinc phosphide - Boric acid - Diatomaceous earth - Silica aerogel **Toxicity Variation:** Highly toxic: Sodium fluoride, zinc phosphide Low toxicity: Boric acid, diatomaceous earth, silica aerogel **Poisoning Symptoms:** Symptoms vary based on the specific pesticide involved. **Desiccants:** Silica aerogel and diatomaceous earth are low in human toxicity but can irritate the eyes and respiratory tract if misused. ### **Boric Acid as an Inorganic Insecticide** - Boric acid is a crystalline derivative of borax (sodium tetraborate) and is low in toxicity to humans and mammals. - It acts as an enzyme inhibitor, particularly affecting digestive and nervous system enzymes **Organophosphates** - **Examples:** Chlorpyrifos, diazinon, dichlorvos. - **Toxicity:** Many are highly toxic and can be absorbed via skin, lungs, or digestive tract. - **Improper Use:** Even less toxic organophosphates can cause poisoning if misused. - **Repeated Exposure:** Continuous exposure to small doses can be dangerous. **[Action on Human System]** - **Absorption:** Organophosphates enter through eyes, skin, and mouth, inhibiting cholinesterase. - **Acute Symptoms:** Symptoms may appear during or within 12 hours of exposure. - **Mild Exposure:** Infrequent mild exposure is generally non-toxic, but repeated exposure can lead to poisoning. - **Long-term Effects:** Ongoing exposure may cause irreversible cholinesterase inhibition and long-lasting health issues. **[Symptoms of Poisoning]** - **Mild Symptoms:** Loss of appetite, headache, dizziness, weakness, anxiety, tremors, pupil constriction, impaired vision. - **Moderate Symptoms:** Nausea, salivation, abdominal cramps, vomiting, sweating, slow pulse, muscle tremors. - **Severe Symptoms:** Diarrhea, non-reactive pupils, respiratory issues, fluid in lungs, cyanosis, loss of sphincter control, convulsions, coma. **Carbamates** - **Cholinesterase Inhibition:** Carbamates inhibit the enzyme cholinesterase, similar to organophosphates. - **Rapid Breakdown:** They are quickly metabolized in the body, causing brief and reversible effects. - **Rapidly Reversing Inhibitors:** Known for causing quick recovery of cholinesterase activity. - **Inaccurate Measurements:** Blood cholinesterase levels may not accurately reflect exposure due to rapid effect reversal. - **Symptom Duration:** Symptoms are similar to those of organophosphates but typically last for a shorter duration. **Moderate Symptoms:** Pupil constriction, salivation, sweating, fatigue, muscle coordination issues, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, chest tightness; **Severe Symptoms:** Respiratory muscle failure, loss of consciousness, pulmonary edema, convulsions. **Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticide** ======================================= - **Fatty Tissue Accumulation:** Some chlorinated hydrocarbons can build up in human fatty tissues, causing chronic toxicity. - **Examples:** Include lindane and methoxychlor. - **Current Use:** Few chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are in use today. **Symptoms of Poisoning** - Moderate Symptoms: Headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting. - Severe Symptoms: Trembling, convulsions, coma, respiratory failure, death. **Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)** - **Human Safety:** IGRs exhibit extremely low toxicity to humans. - **Carrier Toxicity:** Carriers and propellants used with IGRs are often more toxic than the active ingredients. - **Examples:** Include methoprene, hydroprene, and pyriproxyfen. - **Mode of Action in Insects** - **Disruption of Moulting:** IGRs interfere with the moulting process by altering hormonal balance in insects. - **Hormonal Changes:** Moulting in larvae occurs when juvenile hormone levels drop and moulting hormones rise. - **Prevention of Moulting**: IGRs like methoprene maintain juvenile hormone levels, preventing normal moulting. - **No Effect on Humans:** Since humans lack the hormonal system affected by IGRs, they have no impact on the human body. - Symptoms of **acute poisoning** may include nausea, vomiting, cough, and lung irritation. - **Acute poisoning** symptoms may progress to bronchial pneumonia with fever and cough. - Ingesting more than 1 mg/kg may lead to central nervous system depression and irritation. - Symptoms of **CNS depression** include weakness, dizziness, slow respiration, unconsciousness, and convulsions. Kerosene High Nausea, vomiting, lung irritation -------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------- Solvent Distillate Moderate Cough, bronchial pneumonia Diesel Oil Varies Weakness, dizziness, CNS depression ### **Aromatic Hydrocarbons** - Symptoms of **acute poisoning** may include dizziness, euphoria, headache, nausea, and vomiting. - **Exposure to high levels** can cause tightness in the chest, staggering, blurred vision, and rapid breathing. - **Severe symptoms** may include paralysis, unconsciousness, and convulsions. **Aromatic Hydrocarbon** **Lethal Dose (mg/kg)** **Acute Poisoning Symptoms** -------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------------- Xylene 200-1,000 Dizziness, euphoria, headache **Anticoagulants** - Anticoagulants prevent the formation of blood clots by decreasing the clotting ability of the blood. - They inhibit enzymes involved in the vitamin K cycle in the liver. - Common anticoagulant rodenticides include **warfarin and chlorophacinone**. - Effects of anticoagulants are measured by changes in the clotting tendency of blood. ### **Poisoning** - Severe bleeding may occur from the nose, mouth, anus, and internally. - Symptoms of poisoning include difficulty breathing, weakness, lack of appetite, bleeding gums, bruising of skin, ears, or eyes, and death. - Accidental poisoning occurs mainly through ingestion. - **Antidote (vitamin K1) and blood transfusion** are required to counteract the effects of anticoagulant poisoning. ### **Case Studies and Dosage Information** - Example: Bromadiolone has an LD50 of 2-8 mg/kg for humans. - Most bait contains only 0.005% active ingredient, which may not cause clinical effects if ingested in small amounts. - Pets, like cats and dogs, are also at risk of poisoning from rodenticides. - Second-generation rodenticides can have long-lasting effects in the body. **Coumarins Family** - Contains anticoagulants: warfarin, brodifacoum, bromadiolone. - Warfarin is the most recognized anticoagulant. **Indandiones Family** - Includes chlorophacinone and diphacinone. - Disrupts normal energy production in mammals. **Toxicity and Formulation** - Active ingredients have low LD50 values, indicating high toxicity. - Formulated in dilute forms to minimize poisoning risk. - Symptoms of large dose poisoning: bleeding, shock, and death. **Non-Anticoagulant Rodenticides** ================================== ### **Zinc Phosphide** - Contains an emetic ingredient causing vomiting in animals, reducing secondary poisoning. - Degrades rapidly into phosphine gas in the gut, leading to fluid accumulation in the lungs and severe injuries to the liver, kidneys, heart, and central nervous system. - Rapid absorption in the body. **Symptoms of Poisoning** - Moderate: vomiting, chest tightness, cough (due to lung fluid), frothy saliva. - Severe: shock, yellowing of skin, kidney failure, convulsions, coma, respiratory failure, death. ### **Bromethalin** - A rodenticide affecting the central nervous system by damaging ATP synthesis in nerves. - **Symptoms of Poisoning:** - Severe: muscle tremors, sensitivity to touch. - Mild: loss of appetite, lethargy. **Repellents** ============== - **Animal Control Pesticides:** Thiram, methyl nonyl ketone, benzyldiethyl ammonium saccharide, cedar oil. - **Bird Repellents:** 4-aminopyridine, methyl anthranilate. - Most repellents have low human toxicity except for 4-aminopyridine. **Strychnine** ============== - Highly toxic pesticide used for pigeon control and as a rodenticide. - Requires ingestion to take effect and is easily absorbed in the gut, especially on an empty stomach. - Acts directly on the brain and spinal cord cells, causing convulsions and depressing lung function. - **Symptoms of Poisoning:** ### **Cholinesterase Inhibition** - **Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides used by structural exterminators inhibit cholinesterase**. - Cholinesterase is an enzyme crucial for nerve cell function. - Acetylcholine transmission between nerve cells is regulated by cholinesterase. - Overexposure to these insecticides can lead to cholinesterase activity decline and acute poisoning. - Symptoms of poisoning range from mild effects like headache to severe outcomes like respiratory failure and death. ### **Role of Cholinesterase in Nerve Function** - Cholinesterase is an enzyme in the blood that aids in muscle movement control. - Acetylcholine release facilitates nerve impulse transmission between cells. - Cholinesterase neutralizes acetylcholine to stop continuous nerve impulse transmission. - Inhibition of cholinesterase by insecticides leads to uncontrolled nerve impulse transmission. - Symptoms of poisoning include tremors, convulsions, and respiratory failure. ### **Effects of Organophosphate and Carbamate Exposure** - Mild exposure at intervals may not cause immediate toxic effects. - Severe poisoning symptoms include nausea, convulsions, and potential fatality. - Quick medical intervention is crucial in cases of poisoning. - Pesticides can be absorbed through the skin, lungs, or digestive tract. - Long-term health effects may result from repeated exposure without allowing cholinesterase levels to normalize. **Cholinesterase Testing** ========================== - Cholinesterase testing is crucial for diagnosing poisoning by organophosphate or carbamate insecticides. - There is no standard level of cholinesterase activity in human blood, making individual baseline measurements essential. - Exterminators handling these insecticides should undergo baseline cholinesterase activity testing before pesticide exposure. - Regular cholinesterase testing during pesticide exposure is recommended for exterminators to monitor enzyme levels. - Immediate cholinesterase testing post-accidental exposure is vital for accurate diagnosis of poisoning. - Reduced cholinesterase levels in the blood indicate poisoning from organophosphate or carbamate insecticides. ### **Cholinesterase Regeneration and Testing Frequency** - Cholinesterase enzymes regenerate in about 120 days from very low levels to base values after organophosphorous poisoning. - Regeneration is faster for carbamate insecticides compared to organophosphorous compounds. - Baseline cholinesterase levels should be determined before exposure, with regular tests during exposure and after accidental exposure. - Immediate testing post-exposure is crucial for accurate diagnosis. - Physicians familiar with pesticide exposure should analyze cholinesterase test results. **Avicides** ### **Safety Considerations** - Avicides like **4-aminopyridine and Strychnine** can be hazardous to animals and may lead to secondary poisoning of non-target birds and animals if misused. - Avoiding placement of the pesticide in areas frequented by protected bird species. - Preventing contact between the treated bait and feed, food preparation areas, or drinking water. - Identifying bait stations with warning signs containing details like the active ingredient, Pest Control Product Number (PCP), and an emergency contact number. - Preventing water contamination by considering site conditions, especially in flood-prone areas or where bait may enter water systems. - Maintaining a written record of the locations where pesticides like strychnine, zinc phosphide, or 4-aminopyridine are placed, to be kept for two years. - Using protective gloves when handling 4-aminopyridine or Strychnine. **Safe Use of Rodenticides** ============================ - Zinc phosphide usage may be limited on municipal properties. **Safety Procedures for Residual Insecticides** **Safety Measures for Insecticide Applications Inside a Structure** - **Notification:** Inform occupants about the pesticide, including its name, concentration, safety precautions, and re-entry time. - **Odour Awareness:** Alert clients to potential odours after application. - **Safety Concerns**: Prioritize the safety of vulnerable individuals (allergic individuals, pregnant women, elderly, infants) and consider alternative methods. - **Aquarium Precautions:** Cover or remove aquariums, turn off air pumps, and remove pets during application. - **Pesticide Selection:** Choose less persistent and less toxic pesticides in sensitive areas. - **Air Circulation Management:** Shut off air systems to prevent pesticide spread. - **Warning Signs:** Post signs at entry points where continuous access is possible, following specific regulations for Class B or C pesticides. ### **Odours and Ventilation** - Residual insecticides in poorly ventilated buildings can lead to odours from volatile by-products, solvents, and emulsifiers. - Odours may persist for several days after application, especially in crack and crevice treatments. - Ventilation is crucial for dissipating volatile by-products and solvents to reduce odours. ### **Vapour Pressure and Persistence** - Most residual insecticides used in pest control have low to moderate vapour pressures. - Insecticides with high vapour pressures evaporate rapidly, while those with low pressures vaporize slowly and persist longer. - Ventilation aids in removing solvents and volatile by-products. ### **Ventilation and Odour Removal** - Ventilation is less effective in removing odours from pesticide ingredients in the vapour state. - Odours from solvents or volatile by-products can be effectively ventilated. - Pesticide breakdown occurs over time due to ventilation, hydrolysis, photo-degradation, and microbial action. **Ventilation Effectiveness** **Odour Removal** ------------------------------- -------------------------- Pesticide Vapour State Less effectively removed Solvents and By-products Effectively ventilated **Safety Procedures for Insecticide Baits and Air Suspensions** ### **Types of Insecticidal Baits** - Insecticides like boric acid, hydramethylnon, and abamectin are commonly used in bait form for controlling pests like cockroaches and ants. - These baits are specifically designed for use in areas like kitchens where pests often infest. ### **Application Safety Measures** - Example: Applying bait directly into cracks along a kitchen baseboard prevents access by children or pets. **Safety Procedures When Using a Suspension in Air** ==================================================== - Proper calculation of application rate and dosage is crucial to avoid over-application and associated hazards. - Compliance with Fire Code regulations necessitates notifying the local fire department before treatment. - Example: Turning off pilot lights and electrical sources reduces the risk of ignition during airborne pesticide application. ### **Safety Protocols During Application** - Closing all windows and openings to the outside prevents the spread of airborne pesticides. - Locking entrance doors and displaying warning signs ensures restricted access during treatment. - Removal or covering of food, utensils, and equipment minimizes the risk of contamination. - Wearing protective gear like rubber gloves, respirator, and goggles is essential as per product label instructions. - Planning the treatment route and starting from the furthest point optimize safety and efficiency. - Example: Ventilating the treated area by opening doors and windows post-application allows for safe re-entry. **Pesticide Drift Management and Environmental Protection** **Degradation and Bioaccumulation** - **Degradation:** Pesticides break down over time through: - **Hydrolysis:** Chemical reaction with water. - **Photolysis:** Breakdown due to sunlight. - **Microbial Breakdown:** Decomposition by microorganisms. **Bioaccumulation:** - Occurs when pesticides accumulate in an organism\'s tissues. - Leads to higher concentrations in organisms higher up the food chain. - Example: DDT caused thinning of eggshells in fish-eating birds, leading to population declines. **Biomagnification:** Concentrations of pesticides increase at higher trophic levels. **Volatilization:** Pesticides convert to gaseous forms, enabling air transport. **Historical Context:** Rachel Carson's Silent Spring raised awareness of biomagnification and contributed to the DDT ban. **Adsorption:** Pesticides bind to soil particles, reducing environmental mobility. **Absorption:** Plants or organisms take up pesticides. **Case Study:** Glyphosate, a common herbicide, can be absorbed by plant roots, affecting non-target vegetation. **Environmental Protection** ============================ Example: Neonicotinoids, a class of pesticides, have been linked to bee population decline due to runoff into water bodies. Historical Reference: The Bald Eagle population decline in the mid-20th century was linked to pesticide exposure. ### **Weather Conditions and Drift Management** - Fine droplets (100-250 microns) pose a high drift hazard, especially under low wind conditions. - Larger droplets (400-1000 microns) are less likely to drift from the target area - Temperature inversion can trap pesticides in lower air masses, leading to drift. - Monitoring wind speed (2-9 km/hr) and direction is essential for safe pesticide application. **Structural Pest Management Equipment Sprayers ETC** - Droplet sizes typically range from 100-400 microns for a fine spray and over 400 microns for a coarse spray. ### **Hand-held Compressed-Air Sprayer** - Consists of a spray tank, pump unit, and applicator wand with hose and nozzle. - Spray tanks are usually made of stainless steel or plastic, with capacities ranging from 2 to 12 liters. - Pump unit generates pressure inside the tank to force the spray mixture through the applicator hose and wand. - Applicator hose is flexible, corrosion-resistant, and delivers the spray mixture to the target area. - Nozzles are crucial components that determine the spray pattern and are available in various styles and sizes. ### **Power Sprayers** - Used for applying larger volumes of spray mix to control or prevent insect pests around structures. - Powered by gasoline engines or electricity, offering a wide variety of styles for different applications. - Ideal for exterior treatments and perimeter control to prevent pest entry. - Nozzles for power sprayers have specific features tailored to their higher flow rates and power source. **Maintenance and Operation** ============================= ### **Pump Unit Maintenance** - The pump unit comprises a pump cylinder, plunger rod, pumping handle, gaskets, and valves. - Hand-pumped to generate pressure inside the tank, typically around 140 kPa for indoor spraying. - Higher pressures may be used for exterior applications to ensure effective coverage. - Regular maintenance of the pump unit is essential to ensure consistent pressure and functionality. - Proper maintenance extends the lifespan of the equipment and ensures optimal performance. **Tanks and Pumps for Sprayers** **Tank Design for Agricultural Sprayers** ========================================= - Straining during filling and mechanical or hydraulic agitation is necessary to ensure proper mixing of solutions. - Tanks should be corrosion-resistant and strongly constructed using materials like stainless steel, polyethylene, fiberglass, plastic, or glass-reinforced plastic. - Tanks may also have protective linings or coatings to enhance durability. - Equipping tanks with baffles is essential to prevent sloshing during transportation. ### **Tank Features and Considerations** - Tanks should have outlets sized to match the pump capacity for efficient spraying. - Dual tanks require plumbing designed for agitation and balanced withdrawal rates to ensure equal distribution. - Liquid level gauges are crucial for monitoring usage rates and indicating when refilling is needed. - Measurement markings in litres or gallons on the tank\'s exterior help in monitoring liquid levels. - Proper tank design includes good drainage systems to prevent accumulation of excess liquids. **Pump Design for Agricultural Sprayers** ========================================= - Hydraulic agitation provision is necessary, and pumps should have a reserve capacity to account for flow loss due to wear. - Corrosion resistance is essential for all pump components to ensure longevity. - For low-pressure sprayers, the pump\'s maximum output should be at least one litre per minute per metre of swath, excluding agitation needs. - Power sprayers typically use gasoline or electric engines to drive the pump, pressurizing liquid within the hose at 200 to 350 kPa (30-50 psi). ### **Pump Capacity and Maintenance** - **Pump flow capacity** should exceed the required capacity by 20% to maintain proper pressure and flow. - This extra capacity compensates for pump wear and potential increases in nozzle size. - **Piston and diaphragm pumps** need pulsation dampers to reduce pressure fluctuations. - **Roller pumps** are not recommended for abrasive formulations due to quick wear. **Strainers and Hoses in Pesticide Application** **Strainers and Filters** - Proper filtering or straining of pesticides is crucial to protect the sprayer\'s working parts and prevent nozzle clogging. - Progressive filtering is recommended, with the finest filter closest to the nozzles. - Different mesh sizes are advised for various strainer locations: 12 to 20 mesh for tank openings, 25 to 40 mesh for inline suction filters, 40 to 50 mesh for wettable powders, 80 to 100 mesh for other mixtures. - Pressure inline filters (100 mesh) can complement suction line filters, especially with small nozzle orifices requiring 200 mesh screens. - Additional strainers after the pump and in nozzle bodies help prevent finer particles from entering spray **lines and causing clogs.** ### **Types and Placement of Strainers** - **Tank opening:** 12 to 20 mesh strainer - **Inline suction filter**: 25 to 40 mesh strainer - **Line strainer for wettable powders**: 40 to 50 mesh - **Line strainer for other mixtures**: 80 to 100 mesh - **Pressure inline filters** (100 mesh) for small nozzle orifices requiring 200 mesh screens ### **Hose Selection and Sizing** - Hose and fitting size impact system capacity and pressure, with undersized components reducing pump efficiency. - Suction hose diameter should match or exceed the pump intake opening size. - Flow restrictions can arise from under-sized plumbing, controls, fittings, kinked hoses, or clogged strainers. - Synthetic rubber hoses with burst strength exceeding peak operating pressures are recommended. - Hoses should be resistant to oil, solvents, and weather conditions. - Suction hoses should resist collapse and be larger than pressure hoses. ### **Hose Sizes for Various Flow Rates** **Flow Rate (L/min)** **Hose Size (mm)** **Hose Size (inches)** ----------------------- -------------------- ------------------------ 16 12.7 1/2 32 15.8 5/8 48 19 3/4 80 25.4 1 160 31.7 1¼ 480 38.1 1½ 120 50.8 2 #### **Suction Hose** **Flow Rate (L/min)** **Hose Size (mm)** **Hose Size (inches)** ----------------------- -------------------- ------------------------ 16 15.8 5/8 32 19 3/4 48 24.4 1 80 31.7 1¼ 160 38.1 1½ 480 50.8 2 120 63.5 2½ **Importance of Flow Meters** ============================= - Flow meters are essential for accurately determining application rates in power sprayers or injection systems. - Digital flow meters placed near the control trigger enable precise delivery of pesticides to the target area. - Ensures the correct amount of pesticide is applied, enhancing efficiency and effectiveness. ### **Benefits of Using Flow Meters** - Prevents over or under-application of pesticides, optimizing effectiveness. - Reduces wastage of pesticides, leading to cost savings and environmental benefits. - Facilitates compliance with regulations by ensuring accurate application rates. **Backflow Prevention in Agricultural Practices** ================================================= - Use reduced pressure backflow prevention devices on filler hoses of injection systems or power sprayers. - Install anti-siphon devices on tanks when filling from potable water sources. - Hold filler hoses above tanks during filling if prevention devices are unavailable. **Monitoring and Maintaining Pressure in Spraying Operations** ============================================================== ### **Significance of Pressure Gauges** - Pressure gauges are crucial for monitoring spraying operations and ensuring accuracy. - Helps in preventing damage to equipment and ensuring optimal performance. ### **Types and Functions of Pressure Gauges** - Gauges should be accurate and have a maximum pressure reading approximately twice the intended operating pressure. - Liquid-filled gauges dampen pressure pulsations for steadier readings but respond slower to pressure changes. - Dry gauges are available with pulsation dampers to counter pressure fluctuations. ### **Pressure Gauge Recommendations** - Gauges should display pressure in commonly used units such as psi, kPa, or bar. - At least one gauge should monitor boom pressure and be shielded from surges when valves are closed. - Proper gauge selection and maintenance are essential for accurate pressure monitoring. **Nozzle Selection and Maintenance** **Pressure Regulators** ======================= - Pressure regulators should be selected based on the range of operating pressures to be used. - They need to handle bypass flow when spray lines are closed and prevent excessively high pressure during low nozzle pressure requirements. - Proper selection ensures efficient and safe operation of spraying equipment. ### **Factors Affecting Pressure Regulators** - Range of operating pressures - Handling bypass flow when spray lines are closed - Prevention of excessively high pressure during low nozzle pressure requirements - Comparison with pressure gauge ranges - Importance of following manufacturer\'s recommendations for pressure regulator selection ### **Importance of Pressure Regulation in Spray Equipment** - Ensures consistent and accurate application of pesticides - Prevents damage to equipment and ensures safety of operators Optimizes the effectiveness of the spraying process **Nozzles in Application Technology** ===================================== ### **Functions and Types of Nozzles** - Nozzles meter the amount of spray delivered, atomize liquid into droplets, and disperse droplets in specific patterns. - Available in various types, sizes, and materials based on spray pattern development. - Common types include flat fan nozzles and pin spray nozzles. ### **Droplet Sizes and Spray Patterns** - Nozzles can produce droplets ranging from very small to large sizes. - Droplet sizes typically range from 100 to 400 microns for fine sprays and over 400 microns for coarse sprays. - Spray pressure and nozzle orifice size influence droplet size and spray quality. ### **Factors Affecting Nozzle Wear** - Nozzle material, pesticide formulation, operating pressure, size, and frequency of use impact wear. - Nozzle wear increases with softer materials, abrasive formulations, higher pressures, smaller sizes, and prolonged use. - Materials like ceramic and stainless steel have different wear rates. ### **Nozzle Maintenance and Replacement** - Nozzles should be replaced when worn out to maintain application uniformity. - Comparison of worn nozzle output with manufacturer\'s specifications helps determine wear. - Replacement is recommended if output deviates by more than 10% from the specified output. **Spray Gun Nozzles and Agitation in Application Technology** - Nozzles on spray guns must be selected based on the required spray volume, angle, and distance. - Some nozzles are adjustable, offering various spray patterns from solid streams to fine cone sprays. - Materials used for nozzles include plastic, brass, aluminum, stainless steel, or a combination, chosen based on factors like the pesticide spray mixture and pressure requirements. - Pressure ratings for spray guns vary, with some suitable for pressures between 200 and 5,000 kPa, while others are rated for pressures below 1,500 kPa. ### **Spray Gun Construction and Materials** - Spray guns are commonly used with power sprayers and come in diverse models and sizes. - They can be built into hand sprayers or smaller power sprayers or provided as separate equipment. - Construction materials for spray guns include plastic, brass, aluminum, stainless steel, or a combination of these, selected based on factors like the spray mixture and frequency of use. - Some spray guns consist of a shut-off valve and a separate nozzle, while others have an adjustable unit combining both functions. **Agitation in Sprayers** ========================= ### **Types of Agitators** - Adequate agitation is crucial to ensure consistent pesticide application rates. - Three basic types of agitators are mechanical, bypass, and jet (hydraulic) agitators. - Mechanical agitation, typically with rotating flat blades, is effective for thorough mixing. - Bypass agitation may suffice for solutions and emulsions, but wettable powders require a separate jet agitator. - Jet or hydraulic agitation involves fixed jet outlets discharging horizontally across the tank bottom, providing more energy for agitation. ### **Agitation Considerations** - For tanks of 900 litres or more, multiple jet agitators or a pipe with holes drilled every 30 cm are recommended. - Bypass agitation requires a flow equal to 25% of the tank capacity for adequate mixing of wettable powders. - Jet agitators can achieve proper mixing at 5-10% of the tank capacity. **Maintenance of Control Valves and Compressed Air Sprayers** - Pressure control systems utilize pressure regulator valves or control valves to maintain a constant operating pressure. - These valves are commonly found on hand-held and backpack equipment. - The pressure regulator valve controls the pressure, indirectly influencing the quantity of spray material delivered by the nozzles. - It also serves to protect pump seals, hoses, and other sprayer components from damage caused by excessive pressure. - Control valves should be adequately sized to restrict flow and should be easily accessible to the operator. ### **Maintenance of Handheld Compressed Air Sprayers** - Proper maintenance of handheld compressed air sprayers is crucial to minimize breakdowns, extend service life, and reduce the risk of leaks and spills. - Most industry-used handheld compressed air sprayers are constructed from stainless steel for durability. - Poor maintenance can lead to costly repairs, decreased productivity, and potential environmental or property damage. - Procedures for maintaining compressed air sprayers include steps like rinsing the tank, wand, and hoses daily, checking and cleaning screens, strainers, and nozzles, and more. - Regular cleaning with water and detergent is essential to remove pesticide residues that can corrode parts or cause blockages. **Maintenance Procedures for Handheld Compressed Air Sprayers** =============================================================== ### **Tank Maintenance** - When mixing concentrate, start by adding water to the tank to reduce the impact of concentrated pesticides and emulsifiers on tank surfaces. - Release pressure, rinse, and drain the tank, wand, and hoses at the end of each workday to prevent corrosion and buildup. - Clean the tank, wand, and hoses weekly with detergent to remove residues that can clog or damage sprayer parts. - Rinse the tank and hoses daily with water to eliminate pesticide residues that can cause corrosion. - Keep rinsate from cleaning operations in a labeled container to include in the next day\'s tank mix of the same pesticide. ### **Nozzle and Hose Maintenance** - Clean clogged tips and filters using a small brush to maintain proper flow. - Replace rubber gaskets or hoses every 6-12 months, depending on wear and tear and the type of pesticide used. - Lubricate the pump cylinder and check the tank gasket and valve regularly. - Replace nozzles when they produce an inconsistent spray pattern to ensure effective application. - Inspect critical parts like the agitator, regulator, pressure gauge, couplings, and clamps for wear and proper seals. **Pesticide Application Equipment** **Pressurized Containers** ========================== - Ready-to-use pressurized containers are pesticide products designed for commercial use. - Some containers produce fine aerosols that linger in the air before settling, while others produce larger droplets for direct surface application. - Foaming agents are utilized in certain products. - No mixing or sprayer clean-up is required for these products. - Applicator tips are used to apply aerosols into cracks and crevices. **Dusters** =========== - Dusters are used for applying insecticide or rodenticide dusts. - Dusts are formulated as ready-to-use pesticides with low odor and long residual activity. - Knowledge of pest biology and building construction is crucial for effective dusting application. ### **Types of Dusters** - Hand operated dusters are suitable for applying small amounts of dust in cracks, crevices, and void spaces. - Hand operated dusters come in styles like bulb dusters, bellows dusters, and plunger dusters. - Power dusters are more practical for dusting large areas like attics or crawl spaces. ### **Dusting Equipment Varieties** - Hand operated dusters have a holding area for dust and an extension tube for targeted application. - Power dusters operate with electric blowers or compressed air for efficient dusting of large areas. - Power micro-dusters allow precise delivery of dust into small cracks and voids. **Aerosol Generators and Foggers** **Ultra Low Dosage (ULD) Machines** =================================== - ULD machines, also known as Ultra Low Volume (ULV) machines, are commonly referred to as cold foggers. - They disperse small quantities of concentrated insecticide in the form of small droplets with a Mass Median Diameter (MMD) of \ - Hard for gnawing - May not be as effective for rodents that prefer gnawing ### **Seed Bait** - High acceptance by mice that like to hull the seed - Palatable to rodents - Competes well with food sources - Easy to handle - Easily scattered ### **Meal Bait** - Palatable to rodents - Easy to handle - Easily scattered - Not easily transported by rodents - Attractive to food pests and molds ### **Liquid Bait** - Ideal when other food sources are abundant and water is limited - More effective for rats - Suitable for areas with limited water availability Water may evaporate unless placed in inverted founts ### **Tracking Powder** - Ideal if bait acceptance is low - Easily transported by rodents to off-target areas - Can become airborne and move off target - Some powders may be repellent to mice - Difficult to retrieve bait - Poor weather resistance **Rodenticide Safety and Procedures** ### **Rodent Biology and Habits** - Rodent biology includes understanding the behavior, reproduction patterns, and habitats of rodents. - Knowing the habits of rodents helps in identifying their movement patterns and vulnerabilities. - For example, rats are neophobic and tend to avoid new objects initially. - Understanding rodent biology is crucial for effective rodent control strategies. - Case study: Different rodent species have varying reproductive rates, with some capable of producing multiple litters in a year. ### **Proper Use of Rodenticides** - Example: Warfarin is an anticoagulant rodenticide that interferes with blood clotting in rodents. ### **Rodent Control Technology** - Technologies include bait stations, traps, repellents, and exclusion techniques. - Case study: Electronic rodent repellents emit high-frequency sound waves to deter rodents without using chemicals. ### **Bait Stations and Security Measures** - Security measures include using sturdy, weather-resistant bait stations with locked lids. - Example: Tamper-resistant bait stations prevent accidental exposure to rodenticides. - Regular inspection and monitoring of bait stations are essential for successful rodent control. **Rodent Bait Station Guidelines** ================================== Floor Plan and Bait Station Placement ===================================== - The licensed Structural exterminator should create a floor plan of the facility or site when using bait stations. - Use a floor plan map to indicate the placement of bait stations, numbering each station sequentially. - Recording the number of each bait station on the floor plan allows for monitoring rodent activity at each station. - Helps in providing the client with a progress report and easily identifying missing or relocated stations. - Facilitates appropriate action in case bait stations are moved to areas violating the label. ### **Practice Due Diligence** - Notify the client about the use of rodenticide on the premises. - In commercial or industrial settings, consider using signs on utility doors in areas where baits are placed to alert service persons. - Provide the client with a copy of the rodenticide bait station location map and safety information about the pesticide. - In domestic settings, issue a \'letter of responsibility\' co-signed by the client and the pest control company representative. - Emphasize shared responsibility in the use of bait stations. **Application Technology and Record Keeping** ============================================= ### Bait Placement Outdoors - Position placement bags or weatherproof baits deep into rat burrows and cover them to control rodents. - Use larger exterior bait stations attached to structures to prevent tampering and theft. - Secure weatherproof bait in sewers with wire to prevent dislodging. - Affix labels to bait stations with essential information like active ingredient, percentage, company name, and emergency contact. - Exercise caution with placement bags or toss packs to prevent rodents from relocating them to unauthorized areas. **Rodenticide and Insecticide Application Procedures** ### **Post Rodenticide Application Procedure** - Unwanted bait and containers should not be placed in waste collection containers. - Dispose of unwanted materials at the company office through a licensed waste hauler. ### **Residual Insecticides Precautions** - Residual insecticides continue to work for an extended period after application. - They may pose risks to humans and pets for weeks, months, or even years. - Structural exterminators must consider application conditions to minimize risks. - Spray drift can be reduced by using sprays with larger droplets and holding the spray gun close to the target area. - Buffer zones should be established to prevent pesticide contact with sensitive areas. - Vapour concentrations of residual insecticides should be minimized to ensure safe re-entry for occupants. **Pesticide Concentrations and Mixing Calculations** ### **Understanding Concentration** - Concentration refers to the actual amount of active ingredient in a tank mix or container of concentrate pesticide. - It can be expressed in two ways: weight per volume (g/liter, g/kilogram) or percent by volume (%). - Structural pesticide exterminators use concentrated products and rely on spray dilution charts on labels for preparation. - The goal is to mix enough pesticide for a specific treatment to avoid leftover mixtures needing disposal. ### **Calculation of Pesticide Mix** **Birds** Pigeon - Pigeons, also known as Rock doves or Feral pigeons, belong to the species Columba livia. - They typically measure around 34 cm (13.5 inches) in length and are characterized by their bluish grey color with narrow black wing bands and white rump. - In rural areas, pigeons can cause serious losses to small grains, contaminate foodstuffs, and spread diseases to domestic animals. - Diseases carried by feral pigeons include Pigeon ornithosis, Newcastle disease, Aspergillosis, Pseudotuberculosis, and more, some of which are transmittable to humans. ### **Nesting Habits and Behavior** - The incubation period for pigeon eggs is 17-19 days, with both male and female pigeons incubating the eggs. - Young pigeons, known as squabs, are fed pre-digested food (pigeon milk) until they are weaned at 35-37 days old. - They can transmit diseases to humans through ectoparasites like fleas, ticks, and mites. - Pigeon nests may clog drain pipes, interfere with awnings, and make fire escapes hazardous. - Adult pigeons consume about 0.5 kg of food per week, primarily seeds, grains, fruit, green feed, and insects. - While generally monogamous, pigeons will select a new mate if their partner dies. **Ring-Billed Gulls** ===================== - Ring-Billed Gulls, scientifically known as Larus delawarensis, are characterized by their length of 45-50 cm (18-20 inches). - Adult Ring-Billed Gulls have a silvery grey back, white head, tail, and underparts, with black-tipped wings. - Immature gulls have a mottled brown appearance. - They feature yellow legs and a black ring around the tip of their bill. - Ring-Billed Gulls primarily inhabit areas near water bodies and are commonly found in coastal regions. - They are opportunistic feeders, consuming a varied diet that includes fish, insects, and scavenged food. - These gulls are known for their distinctive calls and social behaviors within their colonies. - Ring-Billed Gulls are migratory birds, with populations moving to warmer regions during winter. - They exhibit complex mating rituals and behaviors during the breeding season. **Herring Gull** ================ - **Length:** 45-50 cm (18\"-20\") - **Colour:** Adult gulls have a white head and underparts, light grey back, black wingtips with white spots, and a yellow bill with a red spot near the tip of the lower mandible. Immature gulls are mottled grey or brown. - **Reasons for Control:** Gulls are commonly found near landfills, dumps, and garbage areas. They are noisy in large numbers, their droppings deface public areas, and they pose a hazard to aircraft. - **Range:** Herring Gulls are widely distributed in Ontario. - **Nesting Preference:** Gulls prefer nesting along shorelines, on islands in lakes, and sometimes in low trees. They form large colonies with other birds like cormorants or terns. Nests are hollows in the ground, occasionally lined with grass or debris. - **Population Increase:** The abundance of gulls has risen, likely due to the availability of food at garbage dumps. They scavenge but also consume aquatic animals, marine life, and berries. Protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act. **Canada Goose** ================ - **Length:** Up to 122 cm (48\"). Males are larger than females. - **Colour:** Adults have black heads, necks, bills, and eyes with white cheek patches. Breast feathers are light tan or cream, back is brownish, rump white, with a black tail, legs, and webbed feet. Juveniles resemble adults but are paler. - **Reasons for Control:** Canada Geese have become problematic in urban areas, inhabiting parks and golf courses, damaging grass, and leaving droppings. Aggressive behavior towards humans, especially when protecting goslings, poses risks. - **Range:** Found throughout Canada. - **Nesting Preference:** Both male and female geese raise young and fiercely defend nest sites. They act as sentries when feeding in flocks to alert others of predators. Canada Geese have an average lifespan of 10-25 years. - **Vocalization:** Males produce a low honk, while females emit a higher-pitched "hink" sound. - Vocal differences between males and females play a role in communication and social behavior within flocks. - The role of sentries in alerting others to predators showcases cooperative behavior within flocks. ### **Conservation and Management** - Understanding vocalizations and behavior aids in developing effective management plans for urban bird populations. **Mammalian Pests: Rats and Mice** **Rodentia: Rats and Mice** =========================== - Order Rodentia includes rats, mice, and squirrels with two pairs of incisor teeth. - Incisors are separated from molars by a gap due to the absence of canine teeth. - Rats and mice are commensal rodents, benefiting from their proximity to humans. ### **Types of Rodents** ### **Reasons for Control** - Rodents cause damage to food, property, and spread serious diseases like salmonellosis and ricketsial pox. - They can gnaw through electrical cables, leading to structural fires. - Contamination of food and feed with rodent droppings and urine poses health risks. **Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus)** ================================== - Dark above and pale beneath, with a blunt snout and thick, short ears. - Droppings are capsule-shaped, 25-30 mm long, and contain hairs. ### **Reproduction and Behavior** - Gestation period of 20-25 days, with litters ranging from 2 to 22 young. - Sexual maturity at three months, females produce 4-7 litters per year. - Lives near ground level, nests in the ground, under buildings, and in various debris. ### **Habits and Adaptability** - Excellent climber, swimmer, and jumper, found in dumps and sewers. - Consumes 30-90 grams of food per day, hoards food for later consumption. - Nocturnal, follows specific pathways, but highly adaptable. **House Mouse** - **Weight:** 12-30 grams, average 15 grams - **Overall Length:** About 175 mm (6.8 inches) including tail - **Tail:** 60-105 mm, average 90 mm; dark in color, slightly longer than body - **Colour:** Brownish grey with grey abdomen - **Toes:** Four on front paws, five on back paws (about 9 mm in length) - **Snout**: Pointed, Ears: Large with some hairs ### Reproduction and Lifespan - Reaches maturity near six weeks - Lifespan of about one year - Female may bear up to 8 litters of 5-6 young if conditions are favorable ### **Behavior and Habitat** - Summer behavior: Outdoor burrowing for shelter - Winter behavior: Seeks shelter indoors - Nesting sites: Between double walls, floor joists, cupboards, or under counters - Nest characteristics: About 12 cm in diameter, covered, with a small entrance hole - Diet preference: Cereal grains and seeds, nibbler eating style ### **Abilities and Adaptations** - Gnawing habits: Keeps front teeth sharp by gnawing - Physical abilities: Can jump up to 30 cm vertically, pass through holes up to 12 mm in diameter - Climbing skills: Can climb wall studs and other vertical surfaces - Nocturnal behavior: Well-developed hearing and touch receptors for night-time activities - Exploration behavior: Investigates new objects in its territory **Squirrels** ============= - Belong to the family Sciuridae along with chipmunks and ground squirrels - Found in trees, nests in tree holes or leaf nests in branches above 8 meters - Nests in attics or eaves if accessible - Species in Ontario: Eastern Grey, Eastern Fox, Red, Northern Flying, Southern Flying Squirrels **Eastern Grey Squirrel** ========================= - **Scientific Name:** Sciurus carolinensis - **Weight:** 400-700 g (14-25 oz) - **Length:** 43-50 cm (17\"-20\") - **Tail:** 21-24 cm (8\"-9.5\"); flattened, bushy, grey with white-tipped hairs; or entirely black - **Color:** Grey above, underparts paler grey; or entirely black - **Distinct Features:** Four toes in front; 2.5 cm long, five toes in the back; 6 cm long; rounded snout; short ears - **Habitat:** Most common in urban areas, active in morning and evening during dry weather - **Diet:** Nuts, maple tree seeds, fruit, and corn; known to descend a tree headfirst by rotating their wrists ### **Reproduction and Nesting Habits** - Eastern grey squirrels use woodpecker holes, cavities, or hollow spaces like attics as dens - Summer nests are large, round, ragged, solid-looking balls of leaves in tree crotches - Smaller leaf nests without cavities are used as cooling beds or loafing platforms - Typically have two or three young born in spring, with potential for a second litter in late summer - Squirrels move their young between tree dens and leaf nests based on weather conditions or to avoid ectoparasites ### **Impact on Human Dwellings and Environment** - **Fire Hazard:** Squirrels can introduce combustible nesting materials into dwellings, potentially causing fire hazards - **Entry Points:** Enter buildings through chimney vents, cellar windows, or by gnawing through soft materials like wood or plastic - **Health Risks:** Carry parasites such as fleas, mites, ticks, and can inflict painful bites; medical attention is advised for any squirrel bite - **Gardening Nuisance:** Cause minor damage to gardens by digging up bulbs, clipping flower buds, and stripping bark from trees - **Food Consumption:** Consume pine cones, nuts, fruits, and tend to gather more food for winter than they consume - **Legal Status:** Grey squirrels are designated as game animals under the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act **Legal and Conservation Considerations** ========================================= - Red squirrels are fur-bearing mammals, Northern flying squirrels are specially protected mammals, and Grey squirrels are designated as game animals under the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act. - Individuals can capture animals on their own land in defense or preservation of property - Contact the Ministry of Natural Resources for trapping and releasing wild animals - Regulations on shooting, trapping, and pesticide use may be in place, varying by time of year or geographic location - **Ontario Laws:** Check the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) website for information on laws protecting specific vertebrates **Groundhogs** ============== - Belong to the family Sciuridae along with chipmunks and squirrels. - Scientific Name: Marmota monax - Weight: 1.8-4.5 kg (4-10 lbs); Length: 42-82 cm (16\"-32\") - Tail: 10-15 cm long, bushy, black in color - Color: Reddish brown to black with grey-tipped hairs - Features: Short and blunt snout, short ears, black feet ### **Habitat and Behavior** - Live in burrows in pastures with openings 20-30 cm across and 1.8-10 meters long - Hibernate below ground in hedgerows or woods, not in pasture burrows - Mating occurs in spring, with a single litter of 4-5 young born in April or May - Feed on green vegetation, forage crops like clover, alfalfa, and green vegetables - Most active in early morning and late afternoon, excellent swimmers and climbers - Groundhogs are beneficial for aeration and soil turnover, vacant burrows used by other mammals ### **Behavioral Patterns** - Groundhogs are sun-loving animals, often seen sunning themselves at burrow entrances - They enter hibernation by October - If their habitat is disturbed, they relocate to adjacent fields - Active in the early morning and late afternoon - Excellent eyesight for long distances, can be seen scanning the horizon **Raccoons** ============ ### - Belong to the family Procyonidae, related to bears and Giant panda - Scientific Name: Procyon lotor - Weight: 5.5-22 kg (12-48 lbs); Length: 60-95 cm (24\"-38\") - Tail: 19-40 cm long, bushy with alternating black and brown rings - Color: Reddish brown above, greyish below, black mask on face - Features: Long snout, pointed ears with dark base and lighter tips ### **Behavior and Habitat** - Highly intelligent carnivore, active mainly at night - Omnivorous diet includes fish, frogs, small mammals, birds, fruits, nuts, and corn - Front feet have slender toes for grasping, hind feet for balance - Prefer trees or brush as cover, do not dig dens but use natural shelters - Single litter per year in spring, gestation period of 63 days ### **Interaction with Humans** - May become a nuisance in suburban areas by raiding garbage cans - Few natural enemies like bobcats, foxes, and coyotes - Sometimes take up residence in chimneys, attics, basements, or crawl spaces - Less common in densely settled areas unless near water bodies with wooded banks - Can be legally captured on one\'s own land for defense or property preservation **Skunks** - Weight: 2.7-6.3 kg (6-14 lbs), overall length 52-80 cm, tail length 18-40 cm - Colour: Black with 2 white stripes on back, thin white facial stripe - Features: Pointed snout, short ears, long canines - Behaviour: Nocturnal, omnivorous diet including insects, small rodents, fruit, and garbage - Habitat: Wooded areas near water sources, may dig dens or use existing burrows - Reproduction: Litters of 4-7 young born in late spring or early summer ### **Scent Glands and Defense Mechanisms** - Skunks are known for their scent glands capable of ejecting a potent liquid up to 10 feet - The secretion can cause nausea, burning, temporary blindness, and bleaching of clothing - Skunks can spray multiple times in a row and even when held aloft by their tail - The persistence of skunk odor is remarkable and can be detected in inhabited dens - Skunks may establish dens beneath buildings if natural sites are unavailable - Skunks are fur-bearing mammals under the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act ### **Behavior and Human Interaction** - Skunks are not easily disturbed by human presence and activities - They may move into human habitats and take up residency beneath buildings - Skunks are most active at night and may go unnoticed until they establish dens - Signs of skunk presence include fresh digging, droppings with insect fragments, and rub marks - Skunks are capable of spraying even when held aloft by their tail **Bats** ======== - Bats belong to the order Chiroptera and are the only true flying mammals - Their wings are formed by thin membranes extending from elongated forearms to hind limbs - Bats use a sonar-like echo-location system for navigation and hunting insects - Bats play an important ecological role by consuming large amounts of insects - Bats do not deliberately fly into people\'s hair; their erratic flight is associated with hunting - Bats may roost in buildings due to the loss of natural roosting sites ### **Conservation and Protection** - Bat populations have declined in Ontario due to loss of natural roosting sites - Eight bat species in Ontario are specially protected mammals under the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act - Removal of bats may be necessary in cases of rabies or Histoplasmosis fungus - Bats like the Little Brown Myotis and Big Brown bat are common in Ontario buildings - People may request eviction of bats due to noise, odour, or unfounded fears **Common Household Pests (Insects)** **European Earwig (Forficula auricularia)** =========================================== - Adults can grow up to 2 cm in length - Adult earwigs are reddish-brown in color - Males have curved forceps at the rear of the body, while females have almost straight forceps ### **Life Cycle and Behavior** - Earwigs live for about one year, with most dying during winter - Severe winter and spring weather can reduce the earwig population - Only one generation of earwigs is produced each year - Surviving females lay approximately 60 round white eggs in small nests in early spring - Nymphs leave the nest at around 6 mm in length to search for food and reach adulthood in about 70 days - Earwigs forage at night and seek shelter in dark, moist, cool places during the day ### **Habitat and Behavior in Homes** - Earwigs often enter homes accidentally while searching for sheltered places - They are easily transported long distances in bundles of newspapers, flowers, or packages - Earwigs do not breed indoors and are not disease carriers - They crawl into houses seeking moist sites to hide during the day - Primarily outdoor insects, foraging at night and hiding during the day **Field Cricket (Gryllus spp.)** ================================ - Adult field crickets measure 10-22 mm in length - They are predominantly black in color ### **Reproduction and Habitat** - Field crickets breed outdoors, with females laying eggs in the soil - Eggs overwinter and hatch into nymphs in late spring - There is only one generation of field crickets per year ### Agricultural Impact and Behavior - Field crickets damage crops like alfalfa, cereals, and various vegetables - When natural food supplies are scarce, crickets may enter buildings through openings - They can cause damage to structures and crops **House Cricket (Acheta domesticus)** ===================================== - Adult house crickets are 19-22 mm in length - They have a yellowish-brown color with dark bands across the head and face ### **Behavior and Habitat** - House crickets can live outdoors in warm weather but invade homes in the fall - They hide in warm, dark places during the day and are active at night - Females lay eggs in cracks or crevices indoors ### Impact and Behavior in Homes - House crickets\' chirping can be annoying, emitted by males to attract females - They feed on various materials like paper, leather, cotton, wool, and nylon - Crickets can live indoors indefinitely, causing damage to household items **Cockroaches** =============== - German, Brown-banded, Oriental, American, and Pennsylvania Wood cockroaches are commonly found in Ontario - Australian and Surinam cockroaches also present, causing pest issues in greenhouses - Asian cockroach may become a problem in Ontario if transported by travelers ### **Behavior and Impact** - Cockroaches are attracted to food, water, and shelter, consuming various materials - They can be found in damp environments and are mostly active at night - Cockroaches may carry Salmonella bacteria, posing a health risk in certain locations **German Cockroach** ==================== - Adult German cockroaches measure 10-15 mm in length. - They are yellowish-brown in color. - Distinctive dark parallel bands run along the pronotum of adults and the full body of nymphs. ### **Reproduction and Development** - Female German cockroaches lay eggs in cases, with around 38 eggs per case. - Eggs are placed near a food source, with hatching occurring 1-2 days after placement. - A female can produce up to seven egg cases in her lifetime. - Incubation of the egg case takes approximately 17 days under ideal conditions. - Nymphs can mature into adults in about six weeks, undergoing 5-7 moultings before reaching maturity. - The adult lifespan ranges from 125 to 150 days, with two to three generations per year in an average home. ### **Habitat and Behavior** - German cockroaches thrive in warm, moist environments, commonly infesting kitchens, food storage areas, and bathrooms. - They feed on stored food and debris, often in hidden areas like behind appliances and under counters. - Common hiding spots include crevices behind sinks, beneath counters, and within electrical fuse boxes. - Rapid development is favored under suitable conditions, with a preference for warm and humid settings. **Brown-Banded Cockroach** ========================== - Adult Brown-banded cockroaches measure 10-14 mm in length. - They have a brownish-buff color, with the face and tip of the abdomen being chestnut brown or black. - Both nymph and adult stages feature two brownish yellow bands across the wings. ### Reproduction and Development - Female Brown-banded cockroaches carry a small egg capsule for about 24 to 36 hours before attaching it to an object. - Each capsule contains 16-18 eggs and incubates for 6-10 weeks before nymphs emerge. - Nymphs mature into adults in about 5 months, with females producing around 14 egg capsules in their lifetime. - Adults live for approximately 10 months, with a preference for warmer environments. ### Behavior and Habitat **Oriental Cockroach (Blatta orientalis)** ========================================== - Adult length: 25 mm - Color: Dark brown, almost black - Male tegmina covers three-quarters of the abdomen and is darker than the abdomen - Female tegmina are partially developed, appearing almost wingless - Less wary and more sluggish than other species - Prefers dark, damp crevices in basements, utility tunnels, and sewer pipes ### **Habitat and Behavior** - Can climb the outside of water pipes to reach upper floors in buildings - Prefers living in colonies, often found around water leaks, behind toilets, baths, or laundry tubs - Outdoors, found in alleyways, under verandas, or among piles of garbage ### **Reproduction and Lifecycle** - Female deposits 8-14 egg capsules in her lifetime, each containing 16 eggs - Eggs hatch in 60 days, nymphs undergo seven moults before reaching the adult stage - Lifespan of up to two years **American Cockroach (Periplaneta americana)** ============================================== - Adult length: 30-40 mm - Color: Shiny reddish-brown with a paler yellow area around the edge of the pronotum - Male tegmina extend well beyond the tip of the abdomen, while female tegmina just overlap the abdomen - Largest of the common cockroaches, capable of flight but rare and sluggish ### Habitat and Behavior - Prefers warm, moist environments - Found in areas where food is stored or prepared, such as restaurants, bakeries, and grocery stores - Also inhabits utility tunnels housing hot water pipes ### Reproduction and Lifecycle - Female produces 10 to 15 egg cases during a two-year lifespan - Each egg case contains 16 eggs, with an incubation period of 24-60 days - Nymph undergoes seven to ten moults before reaching the adult stage **Pennsylvania Wood Cockroach (Parcoblatta pennsylvanica)** =========================================================== - Adult length: 22-30 mm (males), 12-20 mm (females) - Color: Yellowish-chestnut brown with pale coloration on thorax and tegmina - Long antennae ### Habitat and Behavior - Mainly an outdoor pest, but can be found in homes and cottages - Diet consists of organic matter, sweet or fermenting substances, and fungi - Hides beneath loose bark, ground litter, wood piles, stumps, and hollow trees ### Reproduction and Lifecycle - Egg cases produced every 5-9 days, releasing 24-30 nymphs - Total lifespan is one year - Males are strong flyers and are attracted to lights at night **Ectoparasites: Lice** - Lice develop through incomplete metamorphosis. - Female head or pubic lice cement eggs (nits) to hair shafts, while female body lice attach eggs to clothing seams. - The eggs are 0.8 mm by 0.3 mm, globular, and greyish-white, hatching in about a week. - Nymphs mature within 8 to 17 days, and adults can live for about a month. - Female lice lay 3-4 eggs per day, totaling around 90 eggs in their lifetime. - Adults are 1 to 4 mm long, with 6 legs ending in hook-like claws for hair attachment. ### Feeding Habits and Adaptations - Both adult and nymph lice feed on human blood by piercing the skin, injecting an anti-coagulant, and sucking blood. - Severe itchiness may result from feeding, leading to scratching and potential secondary bacterial infections. - Pubic lice have larger claws adapted to coarser hairs in their environment. - Bloodsucking may continue for extended periods if the insect is not disturbed. ### Comparison of Lice Types - Body lice (Pediculus humanus corporis) feed on most body hairs except the pubic region, living in clothing seams. - Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are mainly found on the scalp, with eggs cemented close to the hair shaft base. - Body and head lice are similar in appearance and can interbreed. - Head lice are more migratory, spreading infestations in crowded areas like schools. - Head lice are spread through contact with infected persons, shared headwear, clothing, or bedding. **Body Louse** ============== - Body lice feed on most body hairs except the pubic region, living in clothing seams. - They prefer woolen clothing and feed briefly on the host before returning to the clothing seams. - Eggs are typically glued to clothing seams and will die if clothes are not worn for several days. - Body lice and head lice share similarities in appearance and behavior. **Head Louse** ============== - Head lice are mainly found on the scalp, rarely on other body parts. - Eggs are cemented to the hair shaft base near the scalp and are moved away as the hair grows. - Lice are active and crawl rapidly, with immature lice staying close to the skin. - Adult lice are more migratory, leading to the spread of infestations in crowded areas like schools. - Head lice are pests of humans and spread through various means like contact, shared items, and fallen hairs. **Pubic or Crab Louse (Phthirus pubis)** ======================================== - Pubic or crab lice are named for their \'crab-like\' claws, larger than those of head or body lice. - These claws help them firmly grasp coarse hairs in the pubic region, as well as in areas like the mustache, beard, underarms, eyebrows, and eyelashes. - The crab louse is approximately 1.5 mm long, slightly smaller than other lice types. - Eggs are attached to the base of pubic hairs, and infestation primarily spreads through sexual contact or by shedding infested pubic hairs. - Adaptations in morphology enable the crab louse to thrive in specific environments on the human body. ### **Infestation and Transmission** - Infestation primarily occurs through sexual contact, but can also spread through shared infested items like clothing or bedding. - The spread of pubic lice can lead to discomfort, irritation, and potential health risks. - Understanding the lifecycle and transmission methods is crucial for effective prevention and treatment strategies. - Historical references to pubic lice infestations and their impact on human populations. - Comparison of infestation rates in different demographics or regions. **Bed Bugs (Cimex lectularius)** ================================ - Adult bed bugs can grow up to 4.5 mm in length, with a reddish-brown coloration. - Both nymphs and adults lack wings, although adults may have vestigial wing pads. - Understanding the physical features aids in identification and control measures. - Differences in appearance between nymphs and adults, and how these stages impact infestation. - The role of physical characteristics in the bed bug\'s lifecycle and behavior. ### Behavior and Impact - Bed bugs are nocturnal bloodsucking insects that infest sleeping areas of humans and animals. - The presence of bed bugs is not indicative of poor hygiene, as they can be introduced into any environment. - Effects of bed bug bites on humans, including skin reactions and potential health concerns. ### Reproduction and Lifecycle - Female bed bugs can lay up to 500 eggs in their lifetime, with hatching occurring within days. - Understanding the stages of bed bug development from egg to adult, and factors influencing growth. - Environmental conditions that impact the speed of egg hatching and overall population growth. - Comparison of bed bug reproduction rates in different climates or habitats. - The significance of understanding bed bug lifecycles for effective pest management. **Cat Flea (Ctenocephalides felis)** ==================================== ### - Adult cat fleas can reach lengths of up to 3 mm, with brown to blackish coloration. - Larvae are white and reddish when feeding, possessing unique features like powerful jumping legs. - Understanding the physical traits and behaviors of cat fleas aids in identification and control efforts. - Differences between adult and larval stages, and their respective roles in the flea lifecycle. - Behavioral adaptations of cat fleas for survival and reproduction. ### Reproduction and Development - Flea eggs are small, whitish, and laid among the hairs of their host, with females capable of laying hundreds of eggs. - Detailed descriptions of flea egg hatching, larval development, and pupation stages. - Environmental factors influencing flea development and population growth. - Comparison of reproductive strategies among different flea species. - The impact of flea infestations on pets and humans, and strategies for prevention and control. ### Environmental Adaptations and Control Measures - Larvae seek protection in dark, humid areas, feeding on organic matter and adult flea droppings. - Understanding the environmental preferences of flea larvae for effective pest management. - The pupation process of flea larvae and factors influencing pupal development. - Behavioral responses of adult fleas to host presence and environmental cues. - Comparison of flea species and their unique adaptations for survival in different habitats. **Mosquitoes** - Mosquitoes belong to the family Culicidae and have piercing, sucking mouthparts. - There are over 70 species of mosquitoes in Canada, with more than 50 species in Ontario. - Species vary in size, color, body features, habitat, and host preference. - Control of aquatic stages requires specific licenses for extermination. - Male mosquitoes feed on plant fluids, while females require blood for egg development. ### Mosquito Feeding and Disease Transmission - Female mosquitoes feed on blood to obtain nutrients for egg development. - Salivary fluid is injected into the host to prevent blood coagulation, causing allergic reactions. - Diseases can be transmitted from mosquitoes to hosts through saliva. - Identification of larval and adult stages is crucial for selecting appropriate control measures. - Consultation with mosquito identification specialists may be necessary for exact species identification. ### Mosquito Life Cycle - Mosquitoes have four stages in their life cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. - Females lay eggs in water or moist areas that will be flooded. - Larvae develop in stagnant water high in organic matter. - Adult mosquitoes bite and feed on blood for egg development. - Mosquito activity peaks around sunset and sunrise, with dispersal up to 20 km from larval habitats. ### Major Mosquito Genera in Ontario - Genera of major annoyance or disease carriers in Ontario include Aedes, Culex, Coquillettidia, Anopheles, Ochlerotatus. - These genera differ in blood meal sources, generations per year, winter survival stage, larval habitat preference, disease-carrying ability, and biting times. - Control methods and timing vary based on these factors. **Domestic Flies** - Domestic flies are classified in the order Diptera, which means they have only one pair of wings. - The second pair of wings in domestic flies is modified into halteres, which are used for stabilization during flight. - Flies have three distinct body regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. - Large compound eyes of flies enable them to detect even the slightest movement. - Flies have sponging or lapping mouthparts and do not bite. - Fly larvae are legless and have posterior spiracles and anterior hooks for movement assistance. ### Life Cycle and Reproduction - Flies undergo complete metamorphosis: egg, larva (maggot), pupa, and ad

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