MACRONUTRIENTS-and-Micronutrients-Notes.docx

**[MACRONUTRIENTS]** Macronutrients are the nutrients that the body needs in large amounts to function properly and provide energy. They include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Each plays a unique role in maintaining health: 1. **Carbohydrates:** - **Function:** Provide the primary sour...

**[MACRONUTRIENTS]** Macronutrients are the nutrients that the body needs in large amounts to function properly and provide energy. They include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Each plays a unique role in maintaining health: 1. **Carbohydrates:** - **Function:** Provide the primary source of energy for the body, particularly the brain and muscles during exercise. - **Sources:** Bread, pasta, rice, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and dairy products. - **Types:** - **Simple Carbohydrates:** Sugars found in fruits, vegetables, and dairy. - **Complex Carbohydrates:** Found in whole grains, legumes, and starchy vegetables. 2. **Proteins:** - **Function:** Essential for building and repairing tissues, producing enzymes and hormones, and supporting immune function. - **Sources:** Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, legumes, nuts, and seeds. - **Amino Acids:** Proteins are made up of amino acids, some of which are essential and must be obtained through the diet. 3. **Fats:** - **Function:** Provide a concentrated source of energy, support cell structure, and help absorb fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). - **Sources:** Oils, butter, avocados, nuts, seeds, and fatty fish. - **Types:** - **Saturated Fats:** Found in animal products and some plant oils; should be consumed in moderation. - **Unsaturated Fats:** Found in olive oil, avocados, nuts, and fish; beneficial for heart health. - **Trans Fats:** Found in processed foods; should be avoided as much as possible. **[CARBOHYDRATES:]** Carbohydrates are one of the three main macronutrients and serve as the body\'s primary source of energy. They are especially important for the brain, which relies almost exclusively on glucose (a simple carbohydrate) for fuel. Carbohydrates can be classified into two main types: simple and complex. **1. Simple Carbohydrates (Sugars):** Simple carbohydrates are composed of one or two sugar molecules and are quickly digested and absorbed, leading to a rapid increase in blood glucose levels. - **Monosaccharides:** The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar molecule. - **Glucose:** The primary energy source for the body\'s cells; found in many foods, especially fruits and vegetables. - **Fructose:** Naturally found in fruits, honey, and root vegetables. - **Galactose:** Found in dairy products, usually bonded with glucose to form lactose. - **Disaccharides:** Composed of two monosaccharide molecules bonded together. - **Sucrose:** Commonly known as table sugar; composed of glucose and fructose. - **Lactose:** Found in milk and dairy products; composed of glucose and galactose. - **Maltose:** Found in germinating grains and some processed foods; composed of two glucose molecules. **Sources of Simple Carbohydrates:** - Fruits (e.g., apples, oranges, bananas) - Vegetables (e.g., carrots, beets) - Honey - Table sugar - Milk and dairy products - Candy and sweets (often contain added sugars) **2. Complex Carbohydrates:** Complex carbohydrates are made up of long chains of sugar molecules, which take longer to digest and absorb. This leads to a slower, more sustained release of energy. - **Oligosaccharides:** Consist of 3 to 10 sugar molecules. - Found in foods such as legumes, whole grains, and some vegetables. - Often serve as prebiotics, promoting the growth of beneficial gut bacteria. - **Polysaccharides:** Composed of more than 10 sugar molecules; these include starches and fibers. - **Starch:** The storage form of glucose in plants; found in foods like potatoes, corn, rice, wheat, and other grains. - **Glycogen:** The storage form of glucose in animals; stored in the liver and muscles, it is not a dietary carbohydrate but is synthesized by the body. - **Fiber:** An indigestible carbohydrate that plays a crucial role in digestive health. - **Soluble Fiber:** Dissolves in water to form a gel-like substance; helps lower blood glucose and cholesterol levels. Sources include oats, fruits, and legumes. - **Insoluble Fiber:** Does not dissolve in water; helps add bulk to stool and promotes regular bowel movements. Sources include whole grains, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. **Sources of Complex Carbohydrates:** - Whole grains (e.g., brown rice, oats, barley, quinoa) - Legumes (e.g., beans, lentils, chickpeas) - Starchy vegetables (e.g., potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn) - Whole grain breads and pastas - Vegetables (e.g., broccoli, spinach, carrots) - Nuts and seeds **3. Carbohydrate Metabolism:** - **Digestion and Absorption:** Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars during digestion, primarily in the small intestine. Enzymes such as amylase, sucrase, maltase, and lactase help break down complex carbohydrates and disaccharides into monosaccharides, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. - **Blood Glucose Regulation:** Once absorbed, glucose levels in the blood rise. The hormone insulin, produced by the pancreas, facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells for energy or storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When blood glucose levels drop, the hormone glucagon signals the liver to release stored glucose, maintaining balance. - **Glycemic Index (GI):** The glycemic index measures how quickly a carbohydrate-containing food raises blood glucose levels. Foods with a high GI (e.g., white bread, sugary drinks) cause rapid spikes in blood glucose, while foods with a low GI (e.g., whole grains, legumes) lead to a slower, more gradual increase. **4. Health Implications:** - **High Carbohydrate Diets:** Diets high in refined carbohydrates (e.g., white bread, sugary snacks) are associated with weight gain, insulin resistance, and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. - **Low Carbohydrate Diets:** Low carbohydrate diets (e.g., ketogenic diet) emphasize fats and proteins while minimizing carbohydrate intake. These diets can be effective for weight loss and managing blood glucose levels but may lack important nutrients if not well-balanced. - **Fiber Intake:** Adequate fiber intake is associated with numerous health benefits, including improved digestive health, lower cholesterol levels, and reduced risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers. **5. Recommended Intake:** - The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that carbohydrates make up 45-65% of total daily caloric intake. The emphasis should be on consuming complex carbohydrates and fiber-rich foods while limiting intake of simple sugars and refined grains. **[PROTEIN:]** Proteins are essential macronutrients composed of amino acids, which are the building blocks of the body\'s tissues, enzymes, and hormones. Proteins play a critical role in growth, repair, and maintenance of the body\'s cells and tissues. Here\'s a detailed breakdown of proteins: **1. Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins** Proteins are made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids that the body uses to create proteins, and they can be classified into three categories: - **Essential Amino Acids:** These cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. There are nine essential amino acids: - - Histidine - Isoleucine - Leucine - Lysine - Methionine - Phenylalanine - Threonine - Tryptophan - Valine - **Non-Essential Amino Acids:** These can be synthesized by the body, even if not obtained from the diet. There are eleven non-essential amino acids: - - Alanine - Arginine - Asparagine - Aspartic acid - Cysteine - Glutamic acid - Glutamine - Glycine - Proline - Serine - Tyrosine - **Conditionally Essential Amino Acids:** These are usually non-essential but may become essential under certain conditions, such as illness or stress. Examples include arginine, cysteine, glutamine, tyrosine, and proline. **2. Protein Structure** Proteins have four levels of structure, each more complex than the last: - **Primary Structure:** The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, determined by the genetic code. - **Secondary Structure:** The local folding of the polypeptide chain into structures such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds. - **Tertiary Structure:** The three-dimensional shape of the entire polypeptide, formed by interactions between the side chains of amino acids. - **Quaternary Structure:** The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains into a single functional protein, found in proteins with more than one polypeptide subunit. **3. Protein Functions** Proteins perform a vast array of functions in the body, including: - **Structural Proteins:** Provide support and shape to cells and tissues. Examples include collagen (found in connective tissue), keratin (in hair, skin, and nails), and elastin (in ligaments and skin). - **Enzymes:** Catalyze biochemical reactions, speeding up the rate of chemical processes in the body. Examples include amylase (breaks down starch), lipase (breaks down fats), and DNA polymerase (involved in DNA replication). - **Transport Proteins:** Carry substances throughout the body. Examples include hemoglobin (transports oxygen in the blood) and albumin (transports hormones, vitamins, and drugs). - **Hormonal Proteins:** Regulate bodily functions by acting as chemical messengers. Examples include insulin (regulates blood glucose levels) and growth hormone (stimulates growth and cell reproduction). - **Immune Proteins:** Play a role in defending the body against pathogens. Examples include antibodies (produced by B cells to neutralize pathogens) and cytokines (involved in cell signaling in the immune system). - **Contractile Proteins:** Involved in muscle contraction and movement. Examples include actin and myosin (found in muscle fibers). - **Storage Proteins:** Store nutrients and energy for later use. Examples include ferritin (stores iron) and casein (found in milk, stores amino acids). - **Receptor Proteins:** Located on cell membranes, they bind to specific molecules (like hormones) and initiate a cellular response. Examples include insulin receptors and neurotransmitter receptors. **4. Protein Sources** Proteins can be found in both animal and plant-based foods. They are often categorized based on their amino acid composition: - **Complete Proteins:** Contain all nine essential amino acids in sufficient quantities. Examples include: - Animal sources: Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy products. - Plant sources: Soy products (tofu, tempeh), quinoa, buckwheat. - **Incomplete Proteins:** Lack one or more of the essential amino acids. Examples include: - Plant sources: Beans, lentils, nuts, seeds, whole grains, vegetables. **Complementary Proteins:** Combining different plant-based foods can provide all essential amino acids. For example, eating rice and beans together forms a complete protein. **5. Protein Digestion and Absorption** - **Digestion:** Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where the enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. This process continues in the small intestine with the help of proteases (e.g., trypsin, chymotrypsin) secreted by the pancreas. - **Absorption:** The resulting amino acids and small peptides are absorbed through the intestinal lining and transported to the liver via the bloodstream. The liver then distributes these amino acids to various parts of the body for protein synthesis or energy production. **6. Protein Metabolism** - **Protein Synthesis:** The process by which cells build proteins based on the genetic code. It involves transcription (copying DNA to mRNA) and translation (assembling amino acids into a protein based on the mRNA sequence). - **Deamination:** When amino acids are used for energy, their amino group is removed through deamination, producing ammonia, which is converted to urea and excreted by the kidneys. - **Nitrogen Balance:** This refers to the balance between nitrogen intake (from protein) and nitrogen excretion (as urea). A positive nitrogen balance (more intake than excretion) is essential for growth, while a negative nitrogen balance can indicate muscle wasting or malnutrition. **7. Protein Requirements** - **Daily Intake:** The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein is 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight for the average adult. This may vary based on age, sex, activity level, and health status. For example, athletes, pregnant women, and older adults may require more protein. - **Excess Protein:** While protein is essential, excessive intake, especially from animal sources, may be associated with health risks such as kidney damage, cardiovascular disease, and increased cancer risk. **8. Health Implications of Protein** - **Muscle Health:** Adequate protein intake is crucial for maintaining muscle mass, particularly as one ages or engages in physical training. - **Weight Management:** High-protein diets can promote satiety and reduce overall calorie intake, which may aid in weight loss. - **Bone Health:** Protein contributes to bone strength, but excessive intake, particularly from animal sources, may increase calcium excretion and potentially affect bone health. - **Chronic Disease:** Balanced protein intake, particularly from plant sources, may lower the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers. **[FATS:]** Fats, also known as lipids, are a diverse group of compounds that are an essential part of the human diet. They play a crucial role in energy storage, cell structure, and the regulation of various physiological processes. Here\'s a detailed breakdown of fats: ### 1. **Types of Fats** Fats can be classified into several types based on their chemical structure and physical properties: #### A. Triglycerides - **Composition:** Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body and the diet. They are composed of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. - **Function:** Triglycerides serve as the primary form of energy storage in the body. They are stored in adipose tissue and can be broken down into fatty acids and glycerol when the body needs energy. #### B. Fatty Acids Fatty acids are the building blocks of fats. They can be classified based on the length of their carbon chain and the presence of double bonds. 1. **Saturated Fatty Acids:** - **Structure:** Saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbon atoms in their chain, meaning they are \"saturated\" with hydrogen atoms. - **Sources:** Common sources include animal products like meat, butter, cheese, and full-fat dairy, as well as some plant oils like coconut oil and palm oil. - **Physical Properties:** Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature. - **Health Impact:** High intake of saturated fats is associated with an increased risk of heart disease due to their potential to raise LDL (\"bad\") cholesterol levels. 2. **Unsaturated Fatty Acids:** - **Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs):** - **Structure:** These fats contain one double bond in their carbon chain. - **Sources:** Found in olive oil, avocados, nuts (like almonds and peanuts), and seeds. - **Physical Properties:** MUFAs are usually liquid at room temperature but can solidify when refrigerated. - **Health Impact:** MUFAs are considered heart-healthy fats that can help reduce LDL cholesterol and lower the risk of heart disease. - **Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs):** - **Structure:** These fats contain two or more double bonds in their carbon chain. - **Sources:** Found in fish, flaxseeds, walnuts, and sunflower oil. - **Physical Properties:** PUFAs are typically liquid at room temperature. - **Types of PUFAs:** - **Omega-3 Fatty Acids:** Essential fats that are important for heart health, brain function, and reducing inflammation. They are found in fatty fish (like salmon and mackerel), flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts. - **Omega-6 Fatty Acids:** Also essential, omega-6 fatty acids are involved in growth and development. They are found in vegetable oils (like corn and soybean oil), nuts, and seeds. While necessary, an imbalance with omega-3 fatty acids (too much omega-6 and too little omega-3) may promote inflammation. 3. **Trans Fats:** - **Structure:** Trans fats are unsaturated fats that have been chemically altered through a process called hydrogenation, which adds hydrogen atoms to the fat molecules, making them more solid at room temperature. - **Sources:** Found in partially hydrogenated oils, used in many processed foods like baked goods, margarine, and fried foods. - **Health Impact:** Trans fats are harmful to health, raising LDL cholesterol levels while lowering HDL (\"good\") cholesterol levels, increasing the risk of heart disease and other chronic conditions. ### 2. **Phospholipids** - **Structure:** Phospholipids are composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol backbone, and a phosphate group. - **Function:** They are a major component of cell membranes, providing structural integrity and regulating the movement of substances in and out of cells. They also play a role in signaling pathways within the body. - **Sources:** Found in foods like eggs, soybeans, and some meats, though they are also synthesized by the body. ### 3. **Sterols** - **Structure:** Sterols are a type of lipid with a complex ring structure. The most well-known sterol is cholesterol. - **Function:** Cholesterol is essential for the formation of cell membranes, the synthesis of steroid hormones (like estrogen and testosterone), bile acids, and vitamin D. - **Sources:** Cholesterol is found in animal products such as meat, dairy, and eggs. The body also synthesizes cholesterol in the liver. - **Health Impact:** While cholesterol is necessary for health, high levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to plaque buildup in arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease. ### 4. **Functions of Fats** Fats play numerous critical roles in the body: 1. **Energy Storage:** Fats are the most energy-dense macronutrient, providing 9 calories per gram. The body stores excess energy as fat in adipose tissue, which can be mobilized when energy is needed. 2. **Insulation and Protection:** Fat provides insulation to maintain body temperature and protects vital organs by cushioning them. 3. **Cell Structure:** Fats are integral to the structure of cell membranes, particularly phospholipids and cholesterol, which help maintain cell integrity and fluidity. 4. **Absorption of Fat-Soluble Vitamins:** Fats are necessary for the absorption and transportation of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) through the digestive system. 5. **Hormone Production:** Fats are involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones and other signaling molecules, which regulate various physiological processes. 6. **Brain Function:** The brain is composed of about 60% fat, and certain fats (like omega-3 fatty acids) are essential for cognitive function and mental health. ### 5. **Fat Digestion and Absorption** - **Digestion:** The digestion of fats begins in the mouth with the enzyme lingual lipase but occurs primarily in the small intestine. Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fats, breaking them down into smaller droplets. Pancreatic lipase then breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. - **Absorption:** The resulting fatty acids and monoglycerides are absorbed by the intestinal cells, where they are reassembled into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons for transport through the lymphatic system and into the bloodstream. ### 6. **Recommended Fat Intake** - **Total Fat:** The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that fats make up 20-35% of total daily caloric intake. This range supports overall health while providing enough fat for essential functions. - **Saturated Fat:** It is recommended to limit saturated fat intake to less than 10% of total daily calories to reduce the risk of heart disease. - **Trans Fat:** Intake of trans fats should be minimized as much as possible due to their adverse health effects. - **Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids:** A balanced intake of these essential fatty acids is important. The American Heart Association recommends consuming at least two servings of fatty fish per week to ensure adequate omega-3 intake. ### 7. **Health Implications of Fat Consumption** - **Cardiovascular Disease:** Diets high in saturated and trans fats are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease due to their effects on blood cholesterol levels. - **Obesity:** Excessive fat intake, especially from energy-dense foods, can lead to weight gain and obesity, which are risk factors for various chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes and certain cancers. - **Inflammation:** An imbalance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids can contribute to chronic inflammation, which is linked to various diseases. - **Mental Health:** Adequate intake of omega-3 fatty acids is important for brain health and may reduce the risk of depression and cognitive decline. **MICRONUTRIENTS** Micronutrients are essential nutrients that the body needs in small amounts for various physiological functions, including growth, disease prevention, and overall well-being. Unlike macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats), which provide energy, micronutrients do not contribute directly to energy production but are crucial for the body\'s metabolic processes. ### Types of Micronutrients Micronutrients are divided into two main categories: vitamins and minerals. #### 1. Vitamins: - **Fat-Soluble Vitamins:** - **Vitamin A:** Important for vision, immune function, and skin health. - **Vitamin D:** Essential for calcium absorption and bone health. - **Vitamin E:** Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage. - **Vitamin K:** Necessary for blood clotting and bone health. - **Water-Soluble Vitamins:** - **Vitamin C:** Important for collagen synthesis, immune function, and as an antioxidant. - **B-Vitamins:** Includes B1 (Thiamine), B2 (Riboflavin), B3 (Niacin), B5 (Pantothenic acid), B6 (Pyridoxine), B7 (Biotin), B9 (Folate), and B12 (Cobalamin). These are involved in energy production, red blood cell formation, and nervous system function. #### 2. Minerals: - **Macro-Minerals:** Needed in larger amounts. - **Calcium:** Important for bone and teeth health, muscle function, and nerve signaling. - **Phosphorus:** Vital for bone formation and energy production. - **Magnesium:** Involved in over 300 biochemical reactions in the body, including energy production and muscle function. - **Sodium & Potassium:** Crucial for maintaining fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction. - **Trace Minerals:** Needed in smaller amounts. - **Iron:** Essential for the formation of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood. - **Zinc:** Supports immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis. - **Iodine:** Necessary for thyroid hormone production, which regulates metabolism. - **Selenium:** Acts as an antioxidant and supports thyroid function. - **Copper, Manganese, Fluoride, and others:** Play roles in various enzymatic reactions, bone health, and more. ### Importance of Micronutrients - **Growth and Development:** Micronutrients are crucial during periods of rapid growth, such as infancy, childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy. - **Immune Function:** Many micronutrients, like vitamins A, C, D, and zinc, play significant roles in maintaining a healthy immune system. - **Prevention of Deficiencies:** Deficiencies in micronutrients can lead to various health problems. For example: - **Vitamin D deficiency:** Can lead to rickets in children and osteoporosis in adults. - **Iron deficiency:** Can cause anemia, leading to fatigue and weakened immunity. - **Iodine deficiency:** Can cause goiter and intellectual disabilities. ### Sources of Micronutrients Micronutrients are found in a variety of foods: - **Vitamins:** Fruits, vegetables, dairy products, eggs, and fish are rich sources of vitamins. - **Minerals:** Meats, dairy products, nuts, seeds, legumes, and whole grains are good sources of minerals. **MICRONUTRIENTS CHART:** **Micronutrient** **Type** **Main Sources** **Functions** **Deficiency Symptoms** ----------------------------- --------------- --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- **Vitamin A** Fat-Soluble Liver, fish oils, milk, eggs, orange/yellow vegetables Vision, immune function, skin health Night blindness, dry eyes, increased infections **Vitamin D** Fat-Soluble Sunlight, fatty fish, fortified milk, egg yolks Calcium absorption, bone health, immune function Rickets, osteomalacia, bone pain **Vitamin E** Fat-Soluble Vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, green leafy vegetables Antioxidant, immune function, skin health Nerve damage, muscle weakness, vision problems **Vitamin K** Fat-Soluble Green leafy vegetables, fermented foods, liver Blood clotting, bone health Increased bleeding, easy bruising **Vitamin C** Water-Soluble Citrus fruits, berries, peppers, tomatoes Collagen synthesis, antioxidant, immune function Scurvy (bleeding gums, fatigue, poor wound healing) **Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)** Water-Soluble Whole grains, pork, legumes, nuts Energy metabolism, nerve function Beriberi (weakness, heart problems, nerve damage) **Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)** Water-Soluble Milk, eggs, green leafy vegetables, nuts Energy production, skin and eye health Cracked lips, sore throat, skin disorders **Vitamin B3 (Niacin)** Water-Soluble Meat, fish, poultry, whole grains, legumes Energy production, DNA repair Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia) **Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)** Water-Soluble Meat, fish, potatoes, bananas, chickpeas Protein metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis Anemia, depression, confusion **Vitamin B7 (Biotin)** Water-Soluble Eggs, nuts, seeds, dairy products Fatty acid synthesis, amino acid metabolism Hair loss, skin rash, neurological symptoms **Vitamin B9 (Folate)** Water-Soluble Leafy greens, legumes, fortified grains DNA synthesis, red blood cell formation Neural tube defects in infants, anemia **Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)** Water-Soluble Meat, fish, dairy products, fortified foods Red blood cell formation, nerve function Pernicious anemia, nerve damage, memory loss **Calcium** Mineral Dairy products, green leafy vegetables, fortified foods Bone and teeth health, muscle function Osteoporosis, muscle cramps, weak bones **Iron** Mineral Red meat, poultry, legumes, fortified cereals Hemoglobin formation, oxygen transport Anemia, fatigue, weakened immunity **Magnesium** Mineral Nuts, seeds, whole grains, leafy green vegetables Muscle and nerve function, energy production Muscle cramps, mental disorders, osteoporosis **Zinc** Mineral Meat, shellfish, legumes, seeds, nuts Immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis Growth retardation, hair loss, impaired immune function **Iodine** Mineral Iodized salt, seafood, dairy products Thyroid hormone production, metabolic regulation Goiter, hypothyroidism, intellectual disabilities **Selenium** Mineral Brazil nuts, seafood, eggs, whole grains Antioxidant function, thyroid health Weak immune function, heart disease, infertility **Potassium** Mineral Bananas, potatoes, legumes, fish Fluid balance, muscle contraction, nerve transmission Muscle weakness, irregular heartbeat, hypertension **Phosphorus** Mineral Meat, dairy, fish, eggs, legumes Bone formation, energy production Weak bones, joint stiffness, muscle weakness **Copper** Mineral Shellfish, nuts, seeds, whole grains Iron metabolism, nervous system function Anemia, bone abnormalities, impaired immune function