Communication in Business and Economics Master Lecture - University of Würzburg PDF

NK: long bullets points Communication Communication in in Business Business and and Economics Econo...

NK: long bullets points Communication Communication in in Business Business and and Economics Economics Master Lecture Master Lecture Victoria Teschendorf Victoria Teschendorf University of Würzburg University of Würzburg Lecture 1: Definitions, Lecture 1: Definitions,Demarcations Demarcations Course contents Key aspects of corporate and political communication Introduction to a variety of PR/ journalistic theories Introduction to basic tools of public relations such as briefing techniques preparing and conducting press conferences, interviews, campaigns and events PR/journalistic writing style Course contents Lecture/ exercise Course Content Date 1 Introduction: Definitions, Demarcations 16.10.2024 2 Basics in Communication Theory 23/24.10.2024 Exercise 1: Writing like a journalist, press release 3 Theories of Public Relations 30/31.10.2024 Exercise 2: Writing like a journalist, press release II 4 Theories in Journalism 06/07.11.2024 Exercise 3: Writing like a journalist, press release III and online PR 5 Propaganda 13/14.11.2024 Exercise 4: The press conference 6 Business Communication as a Strategy 20/21.11.2024 Exercise 5: The Interview Module 1 – Introduction PR  Course contents Lecture/ exercise Course Content Date 7 External Communication/ Internal Communication 27.11/05.12.2024 Exercise 6: Advertorial 8 Crisis Communication 11/12.12.2024 Exercise 7: Applied Crisis PR 9 Copyright/ Press Law 18.12.2024 10 Journalism Ethics & CSR 15.01.2025 11 Exam Preparation 22.01.2025 Lecture and exercise Lecture: Exercise: Bonus: Business Communication in practice: Theoretical aspects Writing techniques Practical tasks Models/ Theories Press release Strategies Advertorial Knowledge Structuring an Interview Press conferences Case studies Online PR Exam 5 ECTS (Multiple Choice) Written exam + bonus task => for the foreign students: register at least 2 weeks in advance if alternative exam date is needed 60 minutes Please enrol via WueStudy: 15.11.-16.12.24 If not possible via WueStudy and you‘re an international student, please enrol via the faculty‘s Coordinator and Advisor of Incoming Students Final grade: exam grade + possible Bonus Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 9 Lecture 1 - Table of Content Introduction Defining PR Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising The PR-Industry PR-Trends Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Slide 10 "One cannot not communicate“ – Paul Watzlawick Paul Watzlawick = communication theorist, philosopfer, therapist, psychologist … Quotes means there is always been communication in history eg from the drawings on walls with animals, the egtptian hierogloves, word of mouth, social media, personal communcation…  Communication has always an effect: either you communicate now, but also when you don’t communicate. There is no way you don’t communicate! Even when you remain silence, so non-verbal, sensual … we cannot defend ourselves against someone that is communicating with us.  Try not to think abt a pink elephant, successful add … →it will happen; you can’t stop it, you will think about it! Module 1 – Introduction PR  Bentele‘s layer model of PR history Public Relations as a social system From 20th century Public relations as a job and industry (full-time job) 19th century Organizational Communication (PR functions, PR Instruments) Churches, governemnt … late middle ages, modern era (active communication) Public Communication (larger groups like publics) antiquity, middle ages Interpersonal Communication (human communication) Human History (the most fundamental commu layer) Basic model, describing the historical developing of communication in terms of other communications types as a sequence of layer. Age of Mass Media 1940; government vs fuel and oil company owned by a rich family → charged for bad work conditions huge PR disaster and they were responsible Rich family hired IVY LEA (fathers of PR) and want to improve PR and succeeded in that. Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 14 History of Public Relations Famous PR agents: Ivy Ledbetter Lee: developed many of the techniques and principles that practitioners follow today believed in open communication with the media understood that good corporate performance was the basis of good publicity Ivy Lee (1877-1934) Doris Fleischmann and Edward Bernays founders of PR important declarations, campaigns PR industry extremely masculinized until WWII! Anne Williams Wheaton becoming President Eisenhower’s associate Doris Fleischmann (1891-1980) and Edward Bernays press secretary in 1957 and Lorena Hickock first American journalist = key events in the development Slide 15 Introduction - PR history in brief nk Slide 16 Lecture 1 - Table of Content Introduction Defining PR Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising The PR-Industry PR-Trends Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 17 Defining PR – Terms connected with PR There are different names for the field that is described as Public Relations: Corporate Business Communication Corporate Communication Communication Business Communication Communication in Economics Communication in Economics Public Relations These are all synonyms referring to PR Slide 18 Defining PR – Defining the term „PR“ Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR): “Public relations is the discipline which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics.” source: https://www.cipr.co.uk/CIPR/About_Us/About_PR.aspx?WebsiteKey=0379ffac-bc76-433c-9a94-56a04331bf64 Underlining importancy: every organization, no matter how big/small depends on its reputation for survival and success, its publics or customers, or potential customers, suppliers, partners, journals, media, stakeholders, everyone who is affected by a company, they have powerful impact on the organization, they have opinions and content. → In today context of competitive market reputation can be the most valuable asset that you have that makes you special and outstanding, a good selling point PR helps to manage this asset. Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 19 Example: Apple’s environmental initiatives Reputation: being environmentally conscious by making investments into renewable energy, recycling, sustainable materials Reputation: Example to explain more the definition: reputation Apple values sustainability PR strategies focus on fostering good will and understanding between the company and its publics including customers, investors and environmental democracy groups because they do also affect the company. → The reputation that they want to build up is by: slide Slide 20 Example: Apple’s environmental initiatives Understanding & Support: through PR campaigns Campaigns like annual Environmental responsibility reports and conduct media campaigns in order to promote their goals abt sustainability. Module 1 – Introduction PR  Example: Apple’s environmental initiatives Influencing Opinion & Behavior : encouraging people to see the brand as socially responsible & influence buying behavior Example: Apple’s environmental initiatives Planned and Sustained Effort: no one- time events, but sustained strategy to build long-term goodwill PR is always low oriented, what is included here, so the company constantly engages with its key stakeholders through the media, PR tools (press release), for that they want to influence their commitment for sustainability. Module 1 – Introduction PR  Example: Apple’s environmental initiatives Goodwill & Mutual Understanding: by prioritizing transparency (through annual reports) & communicating regularly about initiatives To create a positive relationship between company and public => So defintion excists out of several components and they are all important! Slide 24 Defining PR – Defining the term „PR“ The essence of PR is a) To create meaningful conversations with others b) To discuss important topics/issues in front of large audiences c) To look professional d) To create and maintain an effective operating environment Answer: d, try to keep business running, the other answer are under that answer d Establish useful conversations > Module 1 – Introduction PR  Lecture 1 - Table of Content Introduction Defining PR Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising The PR-Industry PR-Trends Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising – PR and Advertising Source: Eric Dunn, precision intermedia, www.precisionintermedia.com Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising – Differences PR and Advertising 1. Paid Message or Free Coverage The most obvious difference between Public Relations and Advertising (and the easiest way to explain it) is that Advertising is paid placement and media coverage that is earned through Public Relations (e.g. a feature story) is free → ofc its a paid job, but difference. 2. Consumer Perception With paid advertising, the customer knows that you provided the message with the intention of trying to sell them something— an idea or a product. - When someone reads a third-party article written about your idea or your product (or sees/ hears coverage on television or radio), the message is perceived as non-biased. Source: Eric Dunn, precision intermedia, www.precisionintermedia.com 6 diff criteria: You want to achieve that the media picks you up with PR and then that you get attention → marketing: they can tell everything they want! Its not the same in PR 2. (eg google reviews before you visit a restaurant). PR: this is trustable, neutral person (journalist, storyteller) is talking abt you bc you are interesting Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 28 Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising – Differences PR and Advertising 3. Content Control With advertising, you are controlling the message — the size, what it says, how many times it runs and what medium will send the message. - With public relations, you don’t have the control over how the media presents your message — or if it even will run at all. The press is not obligated to run your news items or cover your event just because you have sent them a news release. Ads: full control => Its payed: Content, design… >< PR: hopefully coverage but not sure. You cant control what journalism is talking about you (- or +). Slide 29 Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising – Differences PR and Advertising 4. Writing Style Colourful and descriptive language with a call to action is the most typical form of advertising. You want to motivate consumers to buy your product and of course you are going to make it sound as appealing as possible. - In public relations, you are writing in a news-style format. Editors are less prone to hear hype and over-statements about products and events. You still have to be creative about the angles you pitch, but you need to be subtle about it. PR: boring journalistic writing style: neutral, objective, 3th person, we dont try to advertise something. >< advertisement: colors, appeal, play with emotions … Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 30 Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising – Differences PR and Advertising 5.Placement Public Relations does have a few advantages over advertising, and one of them is placement. A sizeable print ad will never (or, hasn’t so far) run on the front page of a newspaper and many newspapers won’t run ads in the upper third of their pages (unless it is a full-page ad). The “news” always gets priority. 6.Longevity You are paying for the advertising space, so you can keep your message in the public’s eye/ear for as long as your budget allows. - With public relations, you submit a press release for a new product or event once and the PR coverage you generate only runs one time. An editor won’t run your same message three or four times in their publication – it becomes yesterday’s news.. Longevity = as long as you give budget allows it to advertising, you can run your ad as long as you want to. → For news, its different bc yesterday news is not that new today. So you need to have different topics. → New advantages: PR, if it’s a good story, we gather advertising Slide 31 Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising – Differences PR and Advertising Its not the most easiest to do, sometimes its blurred: eg watching tv show, but it is a commercial Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 32 Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising Advertising Public Relations Journalism ⚫ Sales-oriented ⚫ Image-oriented ⚫ Informative ⚫ Short-term impact ⚫ Dialogue-oriented ⚫ Analytical ⚫ Emphasis on visuals ⚫ Transparent and ⚫ Independent ⚫ More aggressive informative ⚫ Factual ⚫ Multimedial ⚫Individual/ organization – public ⚫ Truthful ⚫ Emotionally appealing ⚫ Argumentative ⚫ Opinion forming ⚫ Ethical ⚫ Aesthetizing ⚫ Opinion forming „Between independence and commercial interests“ Increasing sales Creating an Forming an opinion image/reputation Slide 33 Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising? Advertising mixing in PR => What categorie would you put this into? A mix of PR and advertising, they are working together, you cant get a image of what do you sell, but its emotional appealing, its gives an image So its not always easy to see Podcast (talking abt product), … Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 34 Public Relations – Truth or Myth? 1) If I don’t have launches/events, 2) PR does not sell I don’t need PR 3) PR is 4) Traditional unpredicta PR is ble dead False False True, instead of advertising which is predictable flalse Slide 35 Lecture 1 - Table of Content Introduction Defining PR Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising The PR-Industry PR-Trends Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Slide 36 The Public Relations Industry In-House PR Departments Almost every sizeable company and public institution has its in-house PR or public affairs department. At best the in-house PR dept. plays the useful role of filtering incoming requests for information and ensuring that company employees are not taken advantage of by unscrupulous journalists. PR department provides a line of defence for a company in controlling information flow. Most companies has PR nowaydays Module 1 – Introduction PR  The Public Relations Industry Germany Which topics in the field of PR/ communication management become more and more important over the next three years? Building & maintaining Trust Sustainable development & CSR Speed & volume of information flow The Public Relations Industry Germany Influencers are regulized jobs that arised. The Public Relations Industry (read) Specific public relations disciplines include: Financial public relations – providing information mainly to business reporters Consumer/lifestyle public relations – gaining publicity for a particular product or service, rather than using advertising Crisis public relations – responding to negative accusations or information Industry relations – providing information to trade bodies Government relations – engaging government departments to influence policy making Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 40 The Public Relations Industry (read) Disciplines within PR: Brand Journalism/ Content Creation Corporate Communications Events Executive Communications Internal Communications Marketing Communications Media Relations Multi-media Social Media Speechwriting Working techniques in PR Lecture 1 - Table of Content Introduction Defining PR Difference PR, Journalism and Advertising The PR-Industry PR-Trends Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Public Relations Trends Ethics and transparency “Public Relations is a decision-making management practice tasked with building relationships and interests between organizations and their publics based on the delivery of information through trusted and ethical communication methods” Time of “social care”, it is not just about publicizing and marketing It involves building lasting and real relationships and finding ways to engage with many communities All this needs to be done with the help of current technology and trends: video, planning for more voice search, many devices, changing social media dynamics and AI You need to do both !! Module 1 – Introduction PR Slide 43 Public Relations Trends PR and marketing integration (working more closer together) PR as a strategy The importance of content and related tools – digitization Analytics It should be always strategical, within recent years/trends-→ communications NEEDS to be strategical It’s a oriented discipline (how you handle, you make difference in everything, how ppl react, how you communicate) Digitization: content creator/influencers have now a bigger impact! We have more platform to send out the message/product Analytics: we have a lot more data now (predictive analytics) Module 1 – Introduction PR  Business Communication Master Lecture Victoria Teschendorf University of Würzburg Lecture 2: Basics of Communication Theory Lecture 2 - Table of Content Basics in Communication Theory Basic Terms Communication Models Publics and Stakeholders Competences Students should be able to know the ideas behind the communication science, understand how the communication process works and differentiate between different kinds of media. Basics in Communication Theory Communication is related to every Communication science: human activity. addresses (not only) human communication behaviour......particularly in mass media works closely with social/political/economics sciences but also other disciplines Definition of Communication theory: Communication Theory studies the scientific process of sending and receiving information. There are many principles, methods and components that can affect a message, and communication theory explains it all. Module 2: basics of communication theory Communication is more than just a conversation, its about the messages content, the process, how communication works, how can we use it. How can we have different communication? How can we use them? How can we be better in the future. There are a lot of different fields within communication such as media quality , political communication its own agenda setting and framing → For better understanding of the media, how we in reality been constructive in reality (how possible that we live in the same world?) Journalist are gatekeepers, they collect information, what they get in and what on the public, the highlights some aspects, issues of a topic of whatever, to frame an issue or a perspective … We are always sending messages, emotions or information. Slide 4 Basics Terms - Communication Types of Communication (Merten, 1977): Animalistic Communication: Communication between animals or humans Human Communication: Communication between humans Mass Communication: Mono-directional human communication with dispersed publics Computer Mediated Communication: Mono- or bidirectional communication of humans via computer-networks Slide 5 Basics Terms - Communication Types of Communication (Merten, 1977): Merten classifies different stages of communication which differentiate in the complexity of the messages that can be sent from an evolutionary standpoint. They follow the technological evolution of media and the need - for humans - to adapt the way in which communication takes place. Trendatory: You can not reach it as communicate visual objective → you can’t study it. Besides, communication is inevitable, you can’t not not communicate not possible to Module 2: basics of communication theory not communicate. Communication is universal, takes places everywhere ! Doesn’t depend where you are. Communication is a process that not only can be analysed by causality. So its not only explainable by simple cause and effect things, many factors DO play a role. Slide 6 Basics Terms - Communication Levels of Communication (Merten, 1977): Merten provides an application of his reflexivity concept at three levels of communication: 1. Nonverbal Communication 2. Human Communication (verbal and non verbal) 3. Mass Communication Reflexivity as a criteria for communication. - If you have an argument, you can make facts and statements. - Time reflexivitiy: time gives structure to your conversation , you can ask feedback (eg email conversation). Nonverbal: based on animal commu and human Mass communication: abstracted from presence (don’t need to be in same room), sociale image of smth. Slide 7 Basics Terms - Communication Manifestation of Communication: Direct/Indirect: Intentions of communication are clear or hidden Mono-/Bidirectional (one-way/two-way): A back channel is absent or present Private/Public: Communication between individuals or with the public In Presence/Absence: Face-to-Face communication or communication via a medium Module 2: basics of communication theory  Basics Terms - Communication Manifestation of Communication: To be able to make a statement about the quality of communication, there are basic measurements in terms of technology, language, intent/goals and target groups. In PR-terms, the use of different types of media can be a seen as the visible output of a companies’ communication culture. For the quality of communication (speed, tone, sensitivity, language, …) → so a lot of measurement methods Basics Terms - Medium Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary media: Primary media: Means of human communication without the help of technical aids (e.g. face-to-face chat) Secondary media: The sender requires technical equipment; often, information is dispersed via a medium which stays in the background (e.g. book) Tertiary media: The sender and the receiver require technical equipment which is quite prominent (e.g. television) Quaternary media: Computer-based media areas of network and electronic-spatial consumption, information and communication; interactivity with the medium itself characterizes these media Sources: Cf. Pross, H. (1972). Medienforschung – Film, Funk, Presse, Fernsehen. Darmstadt: Habel & Faßler, Manfred (1997). Was ist Kommunikation? München: Fink. Separate them according to time and space PM: at the same space in same time SM: same time but in diff places TM+QM: complete diff spaces, diff equipment can be electronic devices Basics Terms - Medium Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary – alternative approach of differentiation Primary media: sender and receiver are in the same place at the same time Secondary media: The sender aims to bridge differences in time Tertiary media: Sender and receiver are in different places Sources: Cf. Pross, H. (1972). Medienforschung – Film, Funk, Presse, Fernsehen. Darmstadt: Habel & Faßler, Manfred (1997). Was ist Kommunikation? München: Fink. Module 2: basics of communication theory  Primary Media Sign R Sources: Cf. Pross, H. (1972). Medienforschung – Film, Funk, Presse, Fernsehen. Darmstadt: Habel & Faßler, Manfred (1997). Was ist Kommunikation? München: Fink. S sender, R receiver→ yawning, blinking … same place same time Secondary media Time Sources: Cf. Pross, H. (1972). Medienforschung – Film, Funk, Presse, Fernsehen. Darmstadt: Habel & Faßler, Manfred (1997). Was ist Kommunikation? München: Fink. Eg sender wrote a book 50 y ago and he sends out a sign → no dialogue no interaction Tertiary and quaternary media Time Space => Digital World Sources: Cf. Pross, H. (1972). Medienforschung – Film, Funk, Presse, Fernsehen. Darmstadt: Habel & Faßler, Manfred (1997). Was ist Kommunikation? München: Fink. Location doesn’t care anymore: electronic devices → not at same place and time Monodirectional: both sides are able to talk Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 14 Lecture 2 - Table of Content Basics in Communication Theory Basic Terms Communication Models Publics and Stakeholders Competences Students should be able to know the ideas behind the communication science, understand how the communication process works and differentiate between different kinds of media. You need those diff categories in PR, sometimes you need to know which directions you need to have for selling/conversation/information Slide 15 Communication Models – Lasswell Formula One-way model of communication „Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?“ Who says..: Control Analysis Communicator..what…: Content Analysis Message …in which channel…: Media Analysis Medium …to whom..: Audience Analysis Audience …with what effect: Effect Analysis Effect For that we have diff communication models You have a source that initiates the communication process: - Structure and function in society have been analyzed here Who is in control of the message = control analysis Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 16 Communication Models – Lasswell Formula „Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?“ In a condensed way, Lasswell outlined the different steps of a communication process. His formula is a blueprint for the description of all kinds of human communication processes. The formula points to the different perspectives of communication models. Especially valuable for adapting traditional business processes to an online model! BASIC MODEL lasswell formula= “Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?“ Example perfume chain that wants to reach a younger target group: they know they shop online: Who is communicating? The perfume chain What do they communicate? product Not only the product, not only to taylor the product But you can have extra’s : stating delivery within 24 hour Which channel (tiktok, insta…) For who: the younger ppl (where do they life, consumption behaviour…) What effect: subscribe to our newsletter … To adapt traditional perspective towards an online perspective How to reach this target group? Slide 17 Communication Models – Lasswell Formula „Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?“ Well applicable for propaganda context! Module 2: basics of communication theory Another example to use for this model: propaganda context (propaganda is not only an old concept : think of US election, war Ukraine and Russia …): You start the who (identify who has the most power to send the message) You have the message analysis (here propaganda) you are going to the purpose for the message Media analysis: You choose the media that can exercise the most power for the largest amount of ppl as possible (that leads to the audience analysis) To who : target ppl, And then the effect analysis: what was the effect over your public → Propaganda wants to dictate key messages, so no feedback included! This is not reality, this is mostly not considered! Model from 1948, het is monodirection there is no feedback included and all kinds of disturbences in this model are IGNORED this is just a really simple old model. Slide 18 Mass communication: Some of the most models come from tv engineering Slide 19 Communication Models – Shannon-Weaver Technical Sender-Receiver-Model: Message Message Signal Received Signal Information Transmitter Receiver Destination Source Noise Source Module 2: basics of communication theory Applicable in mass communication: model for information Model explains that messages are not directly send from sender to receiver (SR), first their needs to be a signal, and if both parties receive the same reaction, they need to be both identical. → Interesting: including noise source (disruption), but you can easily apply this nowadays, this are misunderstandings, intercultural knowledge, diff backgrounds and tech errors. Can you ever know if a signal has absolute the same meaning as for the receiver? No! Slide 20 Communication Models – Shannon-Weaver Basic Sender-Receiver-Model: An information source that produces a message (sender) A transmitter that operates on the message to create a signal which can be sent through a channel (encoder) A channel, which is the medium over which the signal, carrying the information that composes the message, is sent A receiver, which transforms the signal back into the message intended for delivery A destination, which can be a person or a machine, for whom or which the message is intended Slide 21 Communication Models – Shannon-Weaver Basic Sender-Receiver-Model: Example: A businesswoman calls her worker about a meeting. The worker does not receive the full message due to a noise because of a disruption of the phone network. The businesswoman says: We have a meeting at the office (the “at 8 am” goes missing due to the phone network disruption) The worker (feedback): At what time? Businesswoman: sender, worker: receiver Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 22 Communication Models – Shannon-Weaver Basic Sender-Receiver-Model: Levels of communication problems Technical problems Semantic problems Effectiveness problems Tech problems: how a channel can cause problems (network, battery died, disruptions…) Semantic problems: meaning of messager SR are different individual knowledge; different pronunciation. Effectiveness problems: how effectively does your message cause a reaction Example effectiveness problems: It is handy to describe generation gaps, e.g. sexism topics,femisnms… you have diff perceptions on this topics → many activists are online on social media, but mostly ppl that are addresses to that issue are not online actively. Besides that we have tech and semantic problems even if you reach a conclusion between two generations. We have different views on topics => model explains, to younger ppl unchannels that they don’t use it (cfr slide 21) you can create awareness about this topic but the problem is abt the channel which is the best? Slide 23 Communication Models – Shannon-Weaver Basic Sender-Receiver-Model: Advantages Concept of noise helps in making communication effective by removing the source of the noise Considered as a two-way process → applicable in general communication suited to analyze and improve online communication Criticisms Better applicable to interpersonal communication than group or mass communication Its the simple description of communication, content remains a black box Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 24 “It is possible to study human communication without considering mass communication, but hardly possible to study mass communication without taking account of many areas of communication research which are not themselves “mass” communication.” – Schramm (1962) Model 2: has many similarities => View: information no use unless its carefully put into words and it reaches people, communication is central for him! Slide 25 Communication Models – Schramm Technical Sender-Receiver-Model: Signal Message Message Information Encoder Decoder Destination Source Field of Field of Experience Experience Similarities but still a lot over differences between the models: This case we have fields of experiences only if its OVERLAPS communication can be successful. Encoding starts the process of communicating by converting info into content. When the info reaches the destination, its prior responsibility is to understand what the speaker is talking about (eg example business woman and worker >< if a football lover needs to explain football to someone that does not know anything about that topic, it can create effectiveness problems). Or other example: doctor to doctor vs doctor to patient the knowledge is different! → the more overlap the easier it will be, the less overlap the less it will be successful. Communication can be successful if the agents intacting if they share a same set of goals/values than its much easier to make the communication successful. Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 26 Communication Models – Schramm Basic Encoder-Decoder-Model: A content creator (information source) writes a blog post An information source that produces a message (message). A encoder that transforms the message into a signal which can be sent through a channel The blog platform’s editor (encoder) transforms blog into HTML code (signal). A signal which is the media representation of the encoded message A decoder, which transforms the signal back into the message intended for delivery The HTML code is displayed on a user’s browser (decoder). A destination, which can be a person or a machine, for whom or which the message is intended The reader (destination) views and interprets the blog post. Example: Imagine you are sitting in a car, and the person next to you tells that the light is green → so what do they tell you: they are not only telling you about something which has change in your environment but they might also mean that you can start but they might also say: go on because im in a hurry → connect it with the model see next slide Communication Models – Friedemann Schulz von Thun Module 2: basics of communication theory A message has always 4 sides: we call it listen to 4 different ears: You can understand it in 4 different ways, Each message has 4 diff sides → Diff ppl listen to diff messages - Factual information layer: what do I inform about? Are what are the facts in the conversation? - Appeal: what do I want you to do? What is the intention? - Relationship: what do we interrelate? What is the communication process: what do you think about the other person shared together, experiences… if you want to have long term relationships, its valuable, to see how ppl mean smth. - Self revelation: what do I want to let you see abt myself? What you tell about yourself through that? There always the possibilities of different interpretations Slide 29 von Thun‘s example Person S (first sender of the news) and person R (first receiver of the message) are eating a homecooked meal together. S says: "There is something green in the soup." Sender Receiver Matter layer: There is something Matter layer: There is something green. green. Self-Revealing layer: You do not know what the green Self-Revealing layer: I don‘t know item is, and that makes you feel uncomfortable. what it is. Relationship layer: You think my cooking is questionable. Relationship layer: You should know Appeal layer: I should only cook something you know in the what it is. Appeal layer: Tell me what it is. future! R answers: "If you don't like the soup, you can cook whatever you like." Split the sentence between sender and receiver, they get different information Slide 30 Communication Models – Lazarsfeld The two step flow of communication: Information Opinion Source Leader Digital Message Message communication : two opposing trends Destination Destination Destination 44 MODEL 3: Alternative approach for mass communication: Influence here is indirect Module 2: basics of communication theory => Opinion leaders: Numbers of society, community … for power → Via information source → Destitation: student Why so interested: due to digital communication (we need more personally messages tailored to our needs (direct) but also have indirect influence (influencers, podcaster, politicians, … strategic actors)) Slide 31 Communication Models – Lazarsfeld The two step flow of communication: Lazarsfeld performed the first opinion panel in the forerun to the 1940 general elections in the USA. The result of this evaluation of social influence was: Opinion leaders influence the decision process far greater than the mass media(so they have more power). Opinion leaders have more information sources than the rest of their respective public. Opinion leaders interpret information, based on their own opinion. → Criticized by later empirical studies, but still relevant in the discussion of phenomena of digital communication, especially socially media Slide 32 Lecture 2 - Table of Content Basics in Communication Theory Basic Terms Communication Models Publics and Stakeholders Competences Students should be able to know the ideas behind the communication science, understand how the communication process works and differentiate between different kinds of media. Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 33 Publics and Stakeholders – Publics in PR Definition: ⇨ Publics = potential or actual audiences connected to particular messages ⇨ The term can also refer to communities = groups drawn together by shared experiences, values, symbols, places and ⇨ Activists & Human Rights Groups increasingly to online communities ⇨ Consumers ⇨ Media ⇨ Investors and Stakeholders Grunig and Hunt (1984): Example: Nike and its Sweatshop Labor Publics are arising out of a response to what an organizationPractices does. Publics: determined by how they are affected by an organization or how they affect an organization If an organization did not affect a public, then there was no need for a practitioner to consider that public in its public relations Example nike: practices Stakeholders knew it before Media and activits knew it via publications Blue balloon: Example: Nike and its Sweatshop Labor Practices ⇨ Activists & Human Rights Groups ⇨ Consumers ⇨ Media ⇨ Investors and Stakeholders Slide 34 Publics and Stakeholders – Publics in PR Grunig and Hunt (1984) identified publics on how active or passive they are in relation to an issue. Organizations can also identify their publics based on a list developed from Esman in 1972 (cited Grunig and Hunt 1984). Esman suggested four types of organizational links that can help to identify publics: Enabling: Functional: Normative: Diffused: These publics These are peer These publics help organizations, These publics have no an organization give they share an formalized relationship exist something to industry and may include people a company, interest and may outside the organizations such as raw belong to a where issues may arise materials. joint but which are not association. immediately relevant. Enabling: Organizations that help with the organization existence like regulators, consumers (help to survive) … Functional: investors, owners, suppliers, shareholders… Normative: industries, joint asso, trade unions Diffused: environmental groups; no clear organi but still relevant, cfr nike and activity groups → they had a target for a campaign, there is one issue otherwise it would be no problem. They can be relevant in times of crises Module 2: basics of communication theory  Publics and Stakeholders – Publics in PR Basic publics: 1. The community: These are people around the organization, who are affected by how it expands. 2. Potential employees: These may be university students, people in competitive organizations, even clients. 3. Employees: These can be from all parts of the organization and every wage level and type of employment, from contracted to part time and full time. Overview of potential publics into different categories. lezen Publics and Stakeholders – Publics in PR Basic publics: 4. Trade and suppliers: A diverse range of organizations & individuals, considered as a business-to-business public, include people the organization deals with by buying or selling its products or services. 5. Shareholders and investors: Shareholders and investors are people, who have bought into the company and own parts of it. lezen Publics and Stakeholders – Publics in PR Basic publics: Consumers and users: These people buy the products or 6. services and can be segmented into groups depending on their relevance and priority. - This group can be subdivided into different groups depending on what they buy and how much they interact with their organization and how it affects them. 7. Third parties: Third parties are opinion leaders or other organizations that support an organization, its brand or its products in some way. 8. Mass media: Jefkins (1998) lists the media as a public, although they are actually a channel to the publics. 9. With the internet allowing user-generated content, there is an increasing crossover of who the journalist is and who the public. lezen Module 2: basics of communication theory Slide 1 Slide 4 Business Business Communication Communication Master Master Lecture Lecture Victoria VictoriaTeschendorf Teschendorf University UniversityofofWürzburg Würzburg Lecture 3: Theories Lecture 3: Theories of of PR PR Lecture 3 - Table of Content Theories of Public Relations Introduction „Declaration of Principles“ - Ivy Lee „Propaganda“ - Edward L. Bernays and Doris Fleischmann “Excellence” - Grunig & Hunt Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work. Introduction - different perceptions Source: https://www.t-online.de/nachrichten/panorama/id_85202112/vereinigte-arabische-emirate-papst-franziskus-loest-massenansturm-aus.html Celibrations united emirates M3: Theories of PR Slide 6 Introduction - different perceptions Source https://www.horizont.net/marketing/nachrichten/-Rekord-Budget-fuer-Magnum-Gold-Langnese-startet-Mega-Kampagne-mit-Benicio-del-Toro-91713 Magnum commercial: celebs marketing the product → Fitting to the product, its all about the product → typical a commercial Slide 7 Introduction - different perceptions Source: https://www.cnbc.com/2017/09/12/why-steve-jobs-almost-prevented-the-apple-iphone-from-being-invented.html Steve jobs: black sweater, speech in an expo, presenting the product Slide 8 Introduction - different perceptions Source: http://www.bfmtv.com/international/le-duo-merkel-macron-surnomme-mm-s-par-la-presse-allemande-1175153.html Merkel and macron ‘M&M’, flags, political discussion All 4 situations, PR plays a huge topic but you don’t see that at first sight! M3: Theories of PR  Introduction - different perceptions Goal: Goal: Goal : Goal: To influence social attitudes To present a new product To present a new product/ To enforce national interests (world religion) technology (national interest) communication mode: communication mode: communication mode: communication mode: Conservatively sending CEO-positioning, branding Make use of good personal Aesthetic looking product, messages without a real atmosphere, combined relationships, sympathy dialogue with visual stimuli instrument : Design instrument: Networking, instrument : instrument : & charisma relationship management Preachments, theorems, Design & visual seduction dogmas Common instruments : editorial preparation, event organization, personal performances/ presentations ⇨ they all aim at gaining media attention They have different goals but they use different modes/instruments to persue these goals: Communications models: one way, two way, multi Image 1: one way communication, one mode of interpretation Image 2: visual seduction through people desires Image 3: different communication mode: but with the same goal as image 2, but more abt CEO positioning and branding about a particular product, steve jobs is representing the whole brand Image 4: interpersonal relationship in order to dialogue in politics Common instruments: distinctive ones but all of them need a lot of preparation. Its about performances, … and finaly they receive media attention is the goal of public relations Introduction - different perceptions ⇩ ⇩ ⇩ ⇩ PR as a research field PR as part of PR as organizational PR as a research field: of manipulative marketing communication how relationships propaganda-mass- work, affect each communication other & their environment classification : classification : classification : classification : PR-research from the Business perspective Communication Social psychology beginning of the 20th science century M3: Theories of PR Cfr link lecture 5 also Image 1: pope = manipulation of mass public Image 2: business perspective, communication and PR is not as a supportive sales instrument, soul discipline which hand in hand working together Image 3: branding the image of the brand Image 4: campaign, social pyscho: how do we interact with eachother, abt business relationship, reliability, sympathy, how to reach these situations, personal networking … Slide 11 Lecture 3 - Table of Content Theories of Public Relations Introduction „Declaration of Principles“ - Ivy Lee „Propaganda“ - Edward L. Bernays and Doris Fleischmann “Excellence” - Grunig & Hunt Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Ivy Lee (1877-1934) The son of a Methodist minister, Lee was a Princeton graduate and worked as a newspaper reporter and stringer at the World newspaper in New York City. In 1903, he quit his poorly paid job to work in Seth Low's campaign for the mayor of New York. The following year, he remained in democratic politics , helping to handle publicity for Judge Alton B. Parker's unsuccessful presidential race against Theodore Roosevelt. Ivy Ledbetter Lee, 1920s Ivy Lee 1. Lee represented Pennsylvania Railroad magnate George F. Baer (1842-1914). Following a major rail accident. Lee convinced the railroad to distribute a press release to journalists before they heard rumours about what had happened. He invited reporters and photographers to the scene of the accident. Lee provided a special train to get them there. 2. Also, Lee worked for coal operators during a strike. He send “press releases” to Journalists. The press releases were met with hostility by newspapers, who accused Lee of trying to “manipulate” them. That led to Lee to issue his “Declaration of Principles” M3: Theories of PR Just read the story: “tell the truth and send it to the media” He wanted to show that he is open and truthful about the reality (cfr lecture 1 abt the strike) Slide 14 Ivy Lee - “The Declaration of Principles” "This is not a secret press bureau. All our work is done in the open. We aim to supply news. This is not an advertising agency. If you think any of our matter ought properly to go to your business office, do not use it. Our matter is accurate. Further details on any subject treated will be supplied promptly, and any editor will be assisted most carefully in verifying directly any statement of fact.... In brief, our plan is frankly, and openly, on behalf of business concerns and public institutions, to supply the press and public of the United States prompt and accurate information concerning subjects which it is of value and interest to the public to know about." Two things that are fascinating I the declaration of principles: Declare the PR is not done secretly: do not communicate internally and gives something to the press → its open here! They are open to the truth in order to show the truth. Clearly differentiate himself from advertising to inform to provide news: he want to reach the press and public with information that is important for US citizens or for the whole society. Slide 15 Ivy Lee - “The Declaration of Principles” Lee’s strategy: “Psychology of the multitude” Give up attempts to explain economic laws through rational discourse He advised not to analyse statistics …”since crowds do not reason, they can only be organized and stimulated through symbols and phrases” Communication proceeded better when PR spokesmen played on the “imagination or emotion of the public” Lees tactic: factual accuracy in order to insinuate impressions His strategy= Lee was a fan of psychologist : Austrian froyed Combination of emphasizes on subjectivity with what he read from froyed: Psychology of the maltitude → he detached himself from the discourse M3: Theories of PR → the rational discourse is fine but we can win people not by rational arguments but by motions, symbols, places that appealed to them, he combined different disiplicnes in order to make this work, so ensure to understand. Also what Govers would redefine: the truth pays of propaganda and the public will find out anyway. What he meant by the truth: you must make a radical destinction by the other hand. Slide 16 Ivy Lee - “The Declaration of Principles” „Tell the truth, because sooner or later the public will find out anyway. And if the public doesn‘t like what you are doing, change your policies and bring them into line with what people want.“ Ivy Lee in conversation with John D. Rockefeller What does he mean with the truth: You must make a radical distinction on the one hand and … on the other hand. → So what his perspective of the truth was : and that wanted he to bring into the media → He was an art master, he knew to communicate by people this creates also a smoke screen (smoke between you and them, when the critics are still figuring it out, Lee was already a step further) → He wants to bring his interpretation to the world to the media! Slide 17 Ivy Lee - “The Declaration of Principles” Lee claimed all his work was done in the open BUT several articles about organizations written by him without mentioning his connection to organization Did such behaviour mean that all of Lee’s work was not done in the open? No! A close look at the Declarations of Principles shows how artfully chose Lee his words E.g.: “I send out only matter every detail of which I am willing to assist any editor in verifying for himself.” Those statements were factually correct in that all of Lee’s details were generally verifiable Lee knew that effective propaganda contains in it only information that can be verified M3: Theories of PR Incidents with Lee: - Impression of an article abt companies, people … that there is a link but there isn’t - Basically: he did not lie bc he brought this articles, his view was to give only the information that was important, he give the idea that he was not employed by important rich people, because it was objective information that is not important. - He didn’t do it under pressure, he was carefully choosing words - This is abt telling the truth; his truth is not so the other truth of other people. - This layed the foundation of PR! This will lead to propaganda (see lecture 5) Lecture 3 - Table of Content Theories of Public Relations Introduction „Declaration of Principles“ - Ivy Lee „Propaganda“ - Edward L. Bernays and Doris Fleischmann “Excellence” - Grunig & Hunt Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Key women in (male-dominated) history of PR Lorena Hickock (1893-1968) became first female journalist covering 1932 presidential campaign + first reporter to ever conduct on-the-record interview with first Lady Eleanor Roosevelt in the White House 1940: employed by Democratic National Committee Doris Fleischman (1891-1980) Working as a (feminist) journalist for the New York Tribune, interviewing T. Roosevelt Married & business partnered with Edward Bernays For the first time, she combined her journalistic skills (making sure that editors are provided with important material) with PR skills (employing a strategic concept by targeting publics) Wrote most of firm’s press releases, speeches, letters "Intelligent men must realize that propaganda is the modern instrument by which they can fight for productive ends and help to bring order out of chaos.“ – Bernays M3: Theories of PR Proganda is the only alternative to chaos. The masses would lead to unconcsiously live but there is a small % of the population. Slide 21 Edward L. Bernays By the mid-1920s smoking had become commonplace in the United States At the same time (1920) women had just won the right to vote Socially they still were not able to achieve the same equality as their male counterparts. Women were only permitted to smoke in the privacy of their own homes. George Washington Hill, president of the American Tobacco Bernays in the 1920s Company, believed that cigarette sales would increase if he could entice more women to smoke in public (to lose weight) He is also related to sigmoid froud Tobacco consumption increased extremely, he was citating that it was social, good for weight … → When the elections were in US: so the tobacco company wants to use it to increase sales and let the women population smoke in the outside next slide Slide 22 Edward L. Bernays - „Torches of Freedom“ In 1928 Hill hired Bernays to expand the sales of his Lucky Strike cigarettes. Recognizing that women were still riding high on the suffrage movement, Bernays used this as the basis for his new campaign. Several challenges for Bernays: changing the social attitude towards smoking women overcoming stereotypes he chose women carefully for his project: “Women should be convincing & appealing enough to influence masses but not to good looking to appear authentic” Understand that the CEO was not a feminist, he wants to just increase sales Several challenges: teaching how to smoke, changing social attitudes, overcoming stereotypes (not only junkies, prostitutes, … all women are involved) M3: Theories of PR Slide 23 Edward L. Bernays - „Torches of Freedom“ On 31st March 1929: At the Easter Parade, Bertha Hunt stepped out into the crowded fifth avenue and created a scandal by lighting a Lucky Strike cigarette => big scandal! The press had been informed What they did not know: Hunt was Bernays’ secretary cigarettes which were usually equated with men, the torches represented the freedom for women → Feminism and smoking were connected through the event Solution: a famous woman light up a cigarette on a big parade but women followed bertha and bought also cigarettes → that gave them freedom and power This was a huge scandal event! In the end there was no closure that it was corneys. => Sexual liberation as a form of control and sales increased: bc it was okay to smoke now in public! Slide 24 Edward L. Bernays - „Torches of Freedom“ It became a march with 10 women walking down Fifth Avenue smoking cigarettes → ”Torches of freedom march” The event caused a national stir and stories appeared in newspapers throughout the country Women all over the country took this a a new symbol to their emancipation No disclosure of Bernays link to the American Tobacco Company This event was a big scandal over the world, so a lot of headliners over the world. It was a huge thing for woman across the whole country. M3: Theories of PR Slide 25 Mrs. Taylor-Scott Hardin parades down New York's Fifth Avenue with her husband while smoking ⇨ "torches of freedom,” ⇨ a gesture of protest for absolute equality with men Since that moment it was okay to smoke as a woman in public → it had success, but he wanted just to increase the sales. This is another campaign example of Bernays. Goal: Increasing the sales of bacon About a heavy and light breakfast- -> a heavy breakfast is much healthier for you, so he asked it to 5000 persons → and this is was interesting to publish and so the news was spread that its important to have a good breakfast M3: Theories of PR  Bernays – two characteristic principles Third parties Authorities (e.g. physicians to promote a certain meal) as communicators – deceiving the public about the real sender of a message Scientific approach – „The engineering of consent“ Use of psychological findings for PR practice He conducted research to improve the sales of bacon. His word is based on 2 characteristic principles: 3th parties rely like doctors as communicators And He did research in order to convince, also related to psychology (cfr sigmoid froid). Slide 28 Edward L. Bernays - „Propaganda“ “The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.” “We are governed, our minds molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by men we have never heard of. This is a logical result of the way in which our democratic society is organized. Vast numbers of human beings must cooperate in this manner if they are to live together as a smoothly functioning society.” Based on his words he made a book “propaganda” He combined psychology and economics: hidden actors and himself had a huge influence on the population on smoking and breakfast behaviour M3: Theories of PR Slide 29 Bernays – “The minority rules“ Idea of competing propaganda Power of propaganda used by „intelligent minority“ influencing the masses The minority rules: this minority uses this power, to broadcast to masses, and should more work on ideas and society (eduction, health, smoke…). There is ALWAYS is minority that SHOULD drive the masses. The propaganda is the method, that influences the whole society! Slide 30 Edward L. Bernays - „Propaganda“ Does depend how to frame a story: Summarizing Bernays works (see first 2 min) Propaganda can also used as a positive manner: like vaccination improving life ! He also promote democracy in Europe after the war He invented: consumer propaganda , he realized his uncle (psychological therapy) to commercial therapy, he convinced us → this is a basic idea of capitalism He layed the foundation of the new consumer culture where we buy things that we don’t need but that is okay. → Its abt how easily you can influence ppl to increase sales and not to improve society! Eg diamonds sales increases happened the same, creation around this M3: Theories of PR  Lecture 3 - Table of Content Theories of Public Relations Introduction „Declaration of Principles“ - Ivy Lee „Propaganda“ - Edward L. Bernays and Doris Fleischmann “Excellence” - Grunig & Hunt Competences Students should be able to describe the field of PR, differentiate it from other media-fields and know where PR-professionals work Grunig & Hunt - “Managing Public Relations” Grunig and Hunt’s Managing Pubic Relations (1984) outlined for the first time their four models of public relations (PR): 1. press agentry/publicist 2. public information 3. two-way asymmetric 4. two-way symmetric Grunig and Hunt, 1984, p.22 More abt the theory: how excellent communication should work in PR with 4 models: see slide, which are build on eachother → In terms of flows communication 1. Press agentry/publicist (one sided) Persuasion and manipulation Truth not a necessity Goal: positive image in the mass media One sided communication and the other person is just receiving, the truth doesn’t play a big role here, the goal is to give a positive image, those models can you still apply today. M3: Theories of PR Slide 34 2. Public Information Communicates relatively objective information Information to the mass media Information through direct channels (newsletters, brochures) Not necessarily extensive (consciously omitting certain facts) One way communication model with more resources, but now more objective info so the truth does play a role but not necessarily not all of it (you don’t have to share all your cards!). Slide 35 3. Two-way asymmetric Organization monitors environment Goal: influence strategically relevant stakeholders Feedback is systematically monitored and analyzed Used to adapt communication strategy but not policy Two-way asymmetric public relations... can also be called "scientific persuasion;" generally focuses on achieving short-term attitude change; incorporates lots of feedback from target audiences and publics; is used by an organization primarily interested in having its publics come around to its way of thinking rather changing the organization, its policies, or its views. Organization is communicating with their target (consumers who give feedback and the organi collects the feedback) but the organization has still more power and they want this info in order to increase sales, change the product to the needs of the consumers … to improve interest to its consumers. This model is seen as short term to increase sales M3: Theories of PR  4. Two-way symmetric Dealing with potential conflicts via negotiation Searching for compromises between organization and stakeholders Symmetric communication aiming for a win-win-solution → Policy is affected by feedback and stakeholder interests Equal power of organization and consumers by negotiating, its more dialoguing, the organi wants to understand the consumer needs, desire, how to improve … so win win Grunig & Hunt - “Managing Public Relations” Two-way symmetric public relations... relies on honest and open two-way communication and mutual give- and-take rather than one-way persuasion focuses on mutual respect and efforts to achieve mutual understanding emphasizes negotiation and the willingness to adapt and make compromises requires organizations, engaging in public relations, to be willing to make significant adjustments in how they operate in order to accommodate their publics Grunig & Hunt - “Managing Public Relations” Models PRESS AGENTRY PUBLIC TWO-WAY TWO-WAY INFORMATION ASYMMETRIC SYMMETRIC Purpose Propaganda Dissemination of Scientific persuasion Mutual understanding information – persuasion Nature of One-way, truth One-way, truth Two-way Two-way balanced communication not essential important imbalanced Research Little, press Little – Feedback, Formative clippings only usually readability test Formative Research, possibly, research, Evaluation of readership Evaluation of mutual surveys attitudes understanding sometimes (what do both sides needs) Historical figures PT Barnum Ivy Lee Edward Bernays Edward Bernays, educators Where practiced Sports, Government, Competitive Regulated entertainment, non- profit orgs, business business and Source: Macnamara, 2012, p. product 189 structured modern flat promotion companies structure companies % of market 15 % 50 % 20 % 15 % Propaganda: there can be a lot of backfire if it is wrong Public information: just want to inform you, but not about the whole truth; should pay more transparency to information M3: Theories of PR  Business Communication Master Lecture Victoria Teschendorf University of Würzburg Lecture 4: Theories in Journalism Lecture 4 - Table of Content Theories of Journalism Handicraft Basics in PR and Journalism Press Ethics Journalistic Theories Contemporary Challenges Competences Students should be able to describe the field of Journalism, know its basic guidelines and understand theories as answers to contemporary challenges Headliner taiwan M4: Theories in Journalism Pre election article Summarizes the whole story in one headline, it names all elements → Relevance now The attention is here catched by a headliner about the EU moving (informative), interesting bc UK plays no role anymore Handicraft Basics in PR and Journalism - News value theory Galtung and Ruge (1973) developed a set of values which are used as a form of ‘gatekeeping’, ensuring that news reporting is relevant and informative for consumers of news broadcasts. These values determine how much prominence a news story can be given. Some cultures have different ideas of what they consider to be newsworthy. They set up three hypotheses: 1. Additivity hypothesis 2. Complementarity hypothesis 3. Exclusion hypothesis M4: Theories in Journalism  Additivity hypothesis = the more factors an event fulfils, the more likely it is going to be reported. Complementarity hypothesis = factors will tend to exclude eachother, there is no event that can fulfill the factors because sometimes they are posing to eachother like surprise vs creditbility. Exclusion hypothesis = events that satisfy nothing, none of those factors will be reported at all. Ofcourse culture comes from different views of what is seen as newsworthy, what is relevant and interesting, but those factors supposed to be culture free -> so all include all cultures we have. Handicraft Basics in PR and Journalism - News value theory What are the news values that journalists draw on to decide whether or not to run a story? Frequency: Events that occur suddenly vs. long-term trends Threshold: The bigger impact of the story is, the more people it affects Unambiguity: Events whose implications are clear rather than ambiguous Significance: This relates to cultural proximity and the extent to which the audience identifies with the topic Consonance: Stories that fit in with the media's expectations receive more coverage than those that defy them (= predictability/demand) → news that ppl aren’t expecting to happen. Surprise: If an event is out of the ordinary, it will have a greater effect (unexpected) - frequency: time spend needed to unfold an event eg short vs long term event → media will chose the short term event bc the topic is directly clear, vs long term that goes long on and has no clear information (> easier for journalists! - Significance: culture proximity = ppl pay much more attention to things that are closer to them than far away - Consonance: unless it is unexpected → it’s a factor that goes hand in hand together, that are complementary to eachother - Surprise: (>< what is regular doesn’t attract alot of attention expect its a trendy topic) M4: Theories in Journalism  Handicraft Basics in PR and Journalism - News value theory What are the news values that journalists draw on to decide whether or not to run a story? Continuity : A story which is already in the news gathers the momentum Composition: Editors may seek to provide a balance of different types of coverage (ex trump vs harris) Reference to „elite“ nations: Stories concerned with global powers receive more attention (refer to person or consequences instead of having statistics) Reference to „elite“ people: The media pays attention to the rich, powerful, famous and infamous Personification: News stories that focus on a particular person; stories are presented from a human interest angle Negativity: Bad news is more exciting than good news Source: Galtung, J./Ruge, H.M (1965): The Structure of Foreign News. The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crisis in Four Norwegian Newspapers. In: Journal of Peace Research 2, pp