LNG101PhonHDT24.pdf

ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida ★FYI: To type phonetic symbols, go to: https://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Phonetics（音声学）: 人間は有限の言語音を使って様々な意味の...

ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida ★FYI: To type phonetic symbols, go to: https://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Phonetics（音声学）: 人間は有限の言語音を使って様々な意味の違いを表す。人間の言語にど のような音が使われるのかを研究する分野が音声学である。 Phonetics is the study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages to represent meanings. Three branches of the subject are generally recognized: (1) articulatory phonetics （調音音声学）is the study of the way speech sounds are made ('articulated') by the vocal organs (音声器官／発声器官) ; (2) acoustic phonetics （音響音声 学）studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear; (3) auditory phonetics （聴覚音声学）studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain. Orthography (spelling) is not reliable for scientific analyses. (1) a. Did he believe that Caesar could see people seize the seas? b. The silly amoeba stole the key to the machine. (e, ie, ae, ee, eo, ei, ea, y, oe and ey are all pronounced as [i]) (2) a. ghoti (G.B. Shaw) b. cough, women, and nation (3) a. ワンタンメン館（わんたんめんかん） b. ちず vs. ずし （ヅラ／ヅケ vs. ぬまづ） 四つ仮名（ず、づ、じ、ぢ） IPA (International Phonetic Association or International Phonetic Alphabet) We use a version of the IPA alphabet for this course. Table 6.1 & Table 6.6 参照 - Pullum, G. & W. Ladusaw (1996) Phonetic Symbol Guide. University of Chicago Press. - 国際音声学会編 (1999)『国際音声記号ガイドブック』大修館書店 Articulatory Phonetics（調音音声学） 図 ５-１参照 Consonants（子音）vs. Vowels（母音） Consonantal sounds are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract (声 道) as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis (声門) out the mouth. The quality of a vowel is determined by the particular configuration of the vocal tract in the production of that sound. The passage through which the air travels, however, is never so narrow as to obstruct the free flow of the airstream. Vowel sounds carry pitch and loudness; you can sing vowels. 1 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Consonants: Voiced and Voiceless Sounds （有声音と無声音）Table 6.3 参照 Voiced sounds are produced when the vocal cords (声帯) are together and the airstream forces its way through and causes the vocal cords to vibrate. Voiceless sounds are produced when the vocal cords are apart and the airstream is not obstructed at the glottis. (4) a. [p], [t], [k], [s]... b. [b], [d], [g], [z]... Nasal and Oral Sounds（鼻音と口音） Figure 6-3 参照 Nasal sounds are produced by lowering the velum (soft palate=軟口蓋) to let the air escape through the nose as well as the mouth. Oral sounds are produced by raising the velum all the way to touch the back of the throat to cut off the passage through the nose. （風邪をひくと軟口蓋が下がったままになるので「鼻声」になってしまう。） (5) [m], [n], [ŋ] [ɴ]（ん） [ɲ]（に） Places of Articulation（調音位置）Table 6.2 & Table 6.4 参照 Labials（唇音） [p], [b], [m] -- bilabials (two (or both) lips) 両唇音 [f], [v] -- labiodental (bottom lip and the upper teeth) 唇歯音 Interdentals（歯間音） [θ], [ð] (the tongue between the upper and lower teeth) Alveolars（歯茎音） [d], [n], [t], [s], [z], [l], [r], [ɽ] (ラ行音)(the tongue raised to the alveolar ridge 歯茎部) For [l] and [r], check Carly Rae Jepsen "I Really Like You" and 福山雅治『桜坂』 Velars（軟口蓋音） [k], [g], [ŋ] (the back of the tongue to the soft palate) Palatals（硬口蓋音） [ʃ], [ʒ], [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ], [j], [ɲ] (the front part of the tongue raised to a point on the hard palate) Uvulars（口蓋垂音） [ʁ] voiced uvular fricative (French r sound in rouge) [ʀ] voiced uvular trill (a variety of Parisian French r sound) Glottal（声門音） [ʔ], [h] (cf. Figure 6.4: he, who, uh-oh ) For [ʔ], check Taylor Swift, "Shake it off") 2 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Manners of Articulation（調音法）Table 6.4 & Table 6.5 参照 Stops（破裂音／閉鎖音）are produced by stopping the airstream completely in the oral cavity (口腔). [p], [b], [m] (=bilabial stop) [t], [d], [n] (=alveolar stop) [ɲ] (=palatal nasal stop) [k], [g], [ŋ] (=velar stop) [ʔ] (=glottal stop) Continuants（継続音）are sounds that are not stops. The stream of air continues without complete interruption through the mouth opening. Aspirated/Unaspirated Sounds（有気音／無気音）Spectrograms 参照 [ph] (an extra puff of air), [p] cf. pit/spit top/stop kill/skill Fricatives（摩擦音）The airstream is not completely stopped but is obstructed from flowing freely (cf. friction). [f], [v] (= labiodental fricative) [s], [z] (= alveolar fricative) [ʃ], [ʒ] (= palatal fricative) [θ], [ð] (= interdental fricative) [ɸ], [β] (= bilabial fricative: cf.フ) [ç] (=palatal fricative: cf.ヒ) [ʍ] (= voiceless labio-velar fricative: which, why) Affricates（破擦音）are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a slow release of the closure. [t͡ʃ] [d͡ʒ] (=palatal affricate) [t͡s] [d͡z] (=alveolar affricate) cf. YUI 『CHE.R.RY』 Liquids（流音）There is some obstruction of the airstream in the mouth, but not enough to cause any constriction or friction. [l] (= lateral liquid) [r] (= retroflex for many English speakers) [ɽ] (ラ行音) Glides（わたり音）＝ semi-vowels（半母音）are produced with little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth. [j] (= palatal glide) [w] (= voiced labio-velar glide) cf. 家入レオ『もし君を許せたら』 Flaps （はじき音）are produced by a flick of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. [ɾ] (writer and rider in American English) [ɽ]（ラ行音） 3 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Nasals（鼻音）[ɴ] (=uvula nasal), [n], [m], [ŋ], [ɲ] Vowels: (Figure 6-5) (6) a. How high is the tongue? b. What part of the tongue is involved; i.e., what part is raised or lowered? c. What is the position of the lips? English vowels: the "tensed" vs. "lax" distinction recognized in English is rare among many languages in the world.（Figure 6-4 & 6-5 参照） [i] a tensed high front vowel (the front part of the tongue is raised): he, seat, beat [u] a tensed high back round vowel (the back part of the tongue is raised): who, boot [ɪ] a lax high front vowel (laxed): hit, bit, wish [ʊ] a lax high back round vowel (laxed): put, foot [æ] a (lax) low front vowel (the front part of the tongue lowered): hat, ask, pan [a] a tensed low back vowel (the back part of the tongue lowered): father, pot, honor [e] a tensed mid front vowel: bait, clay, weigh [o] a tensed mid back round vowel: boat, toe, go, over, low [ɛ] a lax mid front vowel: bet, get, mess [ʌ] a lax mid vowel: butt, putt, oven, cover [ɔ] a lax mid back round vowel: caught, ball, law [ə] the schwa (neither high nor low, front nor back): sofa, suppose, the Diphthongs（二重母音） vowel + glide [a]+[j] bite [bajt], rye [raj] [a]+[w] bout [bawt], brow [braw], hour [awr] [ɔ]+[j] boy [bɔj], soil [sɔjl] Consonant Clusters（子音群）-- word initial consonant clusters in English (7) a. *bt, *nk, *gb, *pb, *pt, *pk... (cf. napkin) b. br, dr, gr, bl, gl, pr, tr, thr (θr), kr, pl, kl, str, spr, spl Japanese consonants and vowels:（五十音図参照） (Unlike English, no obvious "tensed" vs "lax" distinction is seen in Japanese.) あ [a]/[ɑ] い [i] う [u]/[ɯ] え [e]/[ɛ] お [o]/[ɔ] Q: 日本語に consonant clusters はあるか？ 4 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Phonology（音韻論）：言語の音韻体系の研究 Phonology is the subfield of linguistics that studies the structure and systematic patterning of sounds in human language. The term phonology is used in two ways: (i) a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the distribution of those sounds and (ii) the general theory of human language that is concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems. Minimal Pairs（最小組）and Phonemes（音素） When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called a minimal pair. (8) a. fine/vine [fajn]/[vajn] seal/zeal [sil]/[zil] choke/joke [t͡ʃok]/ d͡ʒok] b. bad [bæd]/bed [bɛd] bowl [bol]/dole [dol] rube [rub]/rude [rud] cf. seed [sid]/soup [sup] bar [bar]/rob [rab] (NOT minimal pairs) c. 刈る／丸 ([kaɽɯ]/[maɽɯ]) 缶／貝 ([kaɴ]/[kai]) Free Variation（自由変異） e.g. [t] and [ʔ] are in free variation in (British) English. (9) a. don’t [dõnt]/[dõnʔ] b. bottle [bɔtl]/[bɔʔl] cf. butter, matter, letter, etc. c. バイオリン／ヴァイオリン d. アドバイザー／アドヴァイザー The substitution of the glottal stop does not change the meanings. A glottal stop is not a phoneme in English since it is not a distinctive sound. Phones（単音）Phonemes（音素）and Allophones（異音） A phonetic unit or segment is called a phone. A phoneme is one of the basic distinctive speech sounds of a language. [ ] is used for phones and / / for phonemes. In English, /p/ is a phoneme (the underlying mental representation) and [ph] is an allophone of the phoneme /p/. Also, [p] and [ph] are said to be in complementary distribution.（相補的分 布）cf. [wantammeŋkaɴ]: [n][m] and [ŋ] are allophones of the same phoneme /ɴ/ and they are in complementary distribution. Phonemes as Groups of Distinctive Features（弁別的素性）Table 7.4, 7.5 参照 5 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Individual phonemic segments are better regarded as combinations of complexes of features than as indissoluble (impossible to break up) whole segments. (10) a. /p/, /t/, /k/ vs. /b/, /d/, /g/ vs. /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ p b m t d n k g ŋ Labial + + + – – – – – – Voiced – + + – + + – + + Nasal – – + – – + – – + Alveolar – – – + + + – – – Velar – – – – – – + + + Natural Class (informal definition) A natural class is a set of phonemes uniquely defined by a small number of distinctive features such that the set plays a significant role in expressing the phonological regularities found in human language. Obstruents: nonnasal stops, fricatives, and affricates （阻害音） [p/b] [t/d] [k/g], [s/z] [ʃ/ʒ] [f/v] [θ/ð], [t͡ʃ/d͡ʒ] [t͡s /d͡z] (the airstream cannot escape through the nose, and it is either fully obstructed in its passage through the vocal tract, as in nonnasal stops and affricates, or partially obstructed in the production of fricatives). Sonorants: The vocal tract is not constricted to the extent that airflow across the （共鳴音） glottis is inhibited. (vowels, glides, liquids, and nasals are all [+sonorant]; obstruents are [-sonorant]) Anteriors: sounds articulated in front of the palato-alveolar area: labials, （前方音） interdentals and alveolars Coronals: sounds articulated by raising the tip or blade of the tongue: （舌先音／舌頂音） alveolars and palatals. [+consonantal] : obstruents, liquids, and nasals form a natural class of [+consonantal] （子音） sounds which differ phonetically from the [-consonantal] class which includes vowels and glides [+syllabic]: The feature [+syllabic] is assigned to phonemes that can be the head （音節的） (or peak) of a syllable. The vowels of English are [+syllabic]. cf. glides [-syllabic] 6 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Sibilants: [+sibilants] sounds are characterized by the high-frequency turbulent （歯擦音） noise (hissing sound) that accompanies the production of some fricatives and affricates. (cf. /s/ = [+sibilants], /θ/ = [-sibilants]) Phonological Rules: Phonological rules are usually written in the following form: (11) A  B / C _____ D (A becomes B when it occurs between C and D.) (A=underlying form, B=surface form) 練習問題 日本語では[s]と[ʃ] (sometimes ɕ)は complementary distribution（相補分布）を示します。 A. 今朝 [kɛsa] 明日 [aʃi ̻ta] 遅い [ɔsɔi] 島 [ʃima] 腐る [kɯ̻ saɽɯ] 無視 [mɯʃi ̻] 汗 [asɛ] 都市 [tɔʃi ̻] 味噌 [misɔ] 賢い [kaʃi ̻kɔi] Q1: [s]と[ʃ]の分布 (distribution)を説明しなさい。 7 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Q2: どちらを基底形 (underlying form) と考え、どちらを派生形 (derived form) と考えたら記 述がシンプルになりますか？ 音韻規則を公式化しなさい。(Formulate a phonological rule.) 次のデータについて考えなさい。 B. たたり [tatari] 近く [t͡ʃi ̻kakɯ̻ ] 板 [ita] けち [kɛt͡ʃi ̻] つみき [t͡sɯmiki] もちろん [mot͡ʃiɽɔɴ] 男 [ɔtɔkɔ] 内 [ɯt͡ʃi ̻] さとり [satɔri] 勝つ [kat͡sɯ̻ ] Q3: [t]と[t͡ʃ]と[t͡s] の分布 (distribution)を説明しなさい。 Q4: どれを基底形 (underlying form) と考え、どれを派生形 (derived form) と考えたら記述が シンプルになりますか？ 音韻規則を公式化しなさい。(Formulate a phonological rule.) Q5: A のデータと B のデータには、どんな関連がありますか？ (口蓋化 Palatalization) 8 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Assimilation（同化）= a sound becomes more like a neighboring sound with respect to some feature. (for ease of articulation) (i) The Vowel Nasalization Rule in English (bin, ban, boom, beam, bingo, bang…) (12) a. V  Ṽ / ____ [+nasal] b. [+vowel]  [+nasal] / ____ [+nasal] (ii) The High Vowel Devoicing in Japanese (きく[kikɯ̻ ̥ ], です[dɛsɯ̻ ], すきやき, etc.) (13) [+high, +syllabic]  [-voiced] / [-voiced] __ [-voiced] (high vowels [i] and [ɯ] become voiceless [i ̻] and [ɯ̻ ] when they occur between voiceless consonants.) Dissimilation（異化）= two neighboring sounds become less alike with respect to some feature. (If sounds are too similar, we may miss the contrast.) A. Dissimilation by Changing One of the Sounds. The Fricative Dissimilation in English (fifth [fɪfθ]/[fɪft], sixth [sɪksθ]/[sɪkst], etc.) (14) a. [θ]  [t] / [+fricative] ____ b. [+fricative]  [+stop] / [+fricative] ____ c. [+continuant]  [−continuant] / [+continuant] ____ B. Dissimilation by Insertion (or epenthesis)（挿入） The Consonant 'h' Insertion in Hanunoo, spoken in the Philippines (15) ʔupat (four) ʔupati (make it four) ʔunum (six) ʔunumi (make it six) ʔusa (one) ʔusahi (make it one) tulu (three) tuluhi (make it three) (16) Ø  h / V ____ V C. Dissimilation by Deletion（削除） 9 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida For many words in French, the final consonant is dropped if the following word begins with a consonant. (17) petit ami [pətit ami] (little friend) petit garçon [pəti gaʀsõ] (little boy) gros ami [gʀɔz ami] (big friend) gros garçon [gʀɔ gaʀsõ] (big boy) (18) C  Ø / ___ w] [w C [+consonantal]  Ø / ___ w] [w C (cf. [w C = word-initial consonant, C w] = word-final consonant Metathesis transposition of segments A. In some dialects of English, the word ask is pronounced [æks] cf.山茶花 Old English > Middle English bridd > bird frist > first English Regular Plural Forms (spelled: s or es, but pronounced: [s], [z], or [əz]) (19) a. [s] cat/cats map/maps back/backs cuff/cuffs faith/faiths b. [z] dog/dogs can/cans tab/tabs spa/spas call/calls c. [əz] bush/bushes match/matches badge/badges bus/buses Irregular plurals: child/children ox/oxen criterion/criteria sheep/sheep -a morphophonemic rule -a morpheme（形態素）= a minimal meaningful unit -allomorphs（異形態） [z], [s], and [əz] 規則的な部分の記述 [s]の音は[t][p][k][f][θ] の後に出てくる。 [z]の音は[g][n][b][a][l]の後に出てくる。 [əz] の音は[ʃ][t͡ʃ][d͡ʒ][s]の後に出てくる。 他の音は？ (20) a. [z] clam/clams kind/kinds king/kings self/selves car/cars b. [z] ski/skis pro/pros cuckoo/cuckoos etc. c. [əz] lens/lenses garage/garages etc. 10 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida Hypothesis #1: Every lexical item is listed with its plural. Problem: this hypothesis describes the words listed in (20)-(21) above, but what about: glick, bonbin, rostish, etc.? It is unimaginable that every native speaker of English must memorize every plural form in English. Hypothesis #2: The forms of the plural are distributed according to the following speech sound lists: (21) a. The plural morpheme takes the form [s] if the noun ends in [p, t, k, f, or θ] b. The plural morpheme takes the form [z] if the noun ends in [b, m, d, n, g, ŋ, v, l, r, w, j] or any vowel. c. The plural morpheme takes the form [əz] if the noun ends in [s, z, ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ] and maybe [ʒ]. Problem: what about: Bach and other foreign words? Also, there is something important missing in this formulation. Hypothesis #3: The forms of the plural morpheme are distributed according to the following conditions: (22) a. The plural morpheme takes the form [s] if the last sound in the noun is voiceless b. The plural morpheme takes the form [z] if the last sound in the noun is voiced c. The plural morpheme takes the form [əz] if the last sound in the noun is a [+sibilant] sound. Problem: there is no evidence for the assumption that there are three different plural forms. In fact, there is an alternative: namely, that the plural morpheme has one shape and that there are conditions on pronunciation (or phonological rules) that determine the phonetic realization of the different shapes. Hypothesis #4: The plural morpheme is /z/ and is subject to the following conditions (rules): (23) a. If the noun ends in a [+sibilant] consonant, an epenthetic [ə] is inserted between the plural ending and the noun b. Otherwise, if the noun ends in a voiceless consonant, this property of 11 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida nonvoicing is spread to the plural morpheme Hypothesis 4 is much better than the other three hypotheses. Note that we no longer have a “unified” set of statements that specify all of the forms of the plural. The [z] shape is not the result of a rule at all. It is the basic form that is unchanged by rule. It is only [s] and [ə] that are the result of rules. (24) a. Third person possessive John’s [z] Rick’s [s] Butch’s [əz] b. Third person verb agreement runs [z] hits [s] pushes [əz] c. Contraction of the verb is John’s [z] here. Rick’s [s] here. Butch’s [əz] here. Phonological Rules for English plural forms: Formulation #1: (25) a. Ø  ə / [+sibilant] ____ [+sibilant] b. z  s / [−voiced] ____ # (# = word-final) Formulation #2: (26) a. Ø  ə / [+sibilant] ____ [+sibilant] b. s  z / [+voiced] ____ # (# = word-final) Q: Which formulation is better or well-motivated? English word-final consonant sequences: (27) a. sense [sɛns] else [ɛls] mouse [maws] b. fox [fɔks] oops [ʊps] cuffs [cʌfs] c. legs [lɛgz] cabs [kæbz] knives [nɑjvz] (28) a. [ks/*kz] (books) [ps/*pz] (cups) [fs/*fz] (cuffs) b. [ns/nz] (sense/lens) [ls/lz] (else/calls) [ws/wz] (mouse/cows) 12 ICU LNG101 Autumn 2024 Phonetics & Phonology T. Yoshida (29) a. [+voiced] [s] # [ns], [ls], [ws] (cf. 28a/29b) b. [−voiced] [s] # [ks], [ps], [fs] (cf. 28b/29a) c. [+voiced] [z] # [gz], [bz], [vz] (cf. 28c/29b) (30) *[−voiced] [z] # (cf. 29a)) (30) is disallowed in English. That is, no words in English end voiceless consonant followed by [z]: *[kz], *[pz], *[tz], *[fz], *[θz], *[hz]. Note that *[sz], *[ʃz] and *[ t͡ʃz] are also disallowed but they may involve a violation of having the [+sibilant]-[+sibilant] sequence in addition to having the prohibited [−voiced]-[z] sequence. This can be shown by the examples: *[zz], *[ʒz],*[d͡ʒz], which are in accordance with (29c) but still not allowed in the word-final position in English. Thus, the ill-formedness of *[zz], *[ʒz],*[d͡ʒz] must be attributed to the lack of dissimilating [ə] insertion to break up the [+sibilant]-[+sibilant] sequence. If (25b) does not apply, the disallowed consonant sequence (30) would occur. Hence (25b) is absolutely necessary for English phonology. If (26b) does not apply, (29a) would occur, which is actually allowed in English -- (26b) is not a rule postulated based on necessity. (25b), therefore, is superior to (26b). 13