Sociology In Action Chapter 7 - Confronting Economic Inequality PDF

Liza Samuelson Socy Study guide **[Sociology in Action Chapter 7 -- Confronting Economic Inequality]** **Key Terms and Concepts** - **Caste**: A rigid, hereditary social stratification system where people's social status is fixed at birth. - **Class-based**: A system of social stratifica...

Liza Samuelson Socy Study guide **[Sociology in Action Chapter 7 -- Confronting Economic Inequality]** **Key Terms and Concepts** - **Caste**: A rigid, hereditary social stratification system where people's social status is fixed at birth. - **Class-based**: A system of social stratification where people are grouped based on economic factors like wealth, income, and education. - **Downward mobility**: A decrease in social or economic status. - **Economic inequality**: The unequal distribution of wealth, income, and resources in a society. - **Income**: The money received on a regular basis from work, investment, or other sources. - **Intergenerational mobility**: Changes in social status between different generations within a family. - **Meritocracy**: A system where individuals are rewarded based on ability and achievement, rather than social class or background. - **Social class**: A division of society based on social and economic status. - **Social class reproduction**: The process by which social class is passed down from one generation to the next. - **Social stratification**: A hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society, often based on wealth, income, race, education, or power. - **Socioeconomic status**: A combined measure of an individual's or family's social and economic position, based on factors like income, education, and occupation. - **Structural mobility**: Movement between social classes due to changes in the economy or society, rather than individual effort. - **Structured inequalities**: Systemic inequalities embedded in the structures of society that limit opportunities based on factors like class, race, and gender. - **Upward mobility**: Movement to a higher social or economic status. - **Wealth**: The total value of assets owned by an individual or household, including property, investments, and savings. **Study Questions** 1. **What is social stratification?**\ Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in society based on factors like wealth, power, and prestige. It reflects inequalities in resources and opportunities. An example of someone with property, power, and prestige could be a successful CEO. Someone with power and prestige but not property might be a well-known activist or celebrity. 2. **What social attributes shape our position in the social strata?**\ Sociologists are particularly interested in factors like class, race, gender, education, and occupation. 3. **What are structured inequities?**\ Structured inequities are systemic inequalities built into society's institutions and systems, perpetuating disadvantages for certain groups. An example is segregation in education (historical) or racial disparities in policing (contemporary). 4. **What is economic inequality?**\ Economic inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, wealth, and income. Globally, wealth is concentrated in a few nations, and within the U.S., income inequality has grown significantly over recent decades. 5. **What is the difference between income and wealth?**\ Income refers to money earned regularly, while wealth is the total value of assets, including property and investments. 6. **Why does economic inequality exist and persist?** - **Structural Functionalist**: It sees inequality as necessary for motivation and efficient role allocation in society (meritocracy). - **Conflict Theory**: It argues that inequality is the result of exploitation by those in power to maintain their dominance. 7. **What is happening with income inequality in the U.S.?**\ Over the past several decades, income inequality has increased, with CEOs earning hundreds of times more than unskilled workers. About 40% of Americans will experience poverty at some point in their lives. 8. **Consequences of economic inequality?**\ Economic inequality affects education, health, life expectancy, and housing quality. For example, lower-income families may have less access to quality education or healthcare. 9. **Difference between estate, caste, and class-based systems?** - **Estate**: A hierarchical system where land and power are owned by a small elite. - **Caste**: A rigid system where social mobility is almost impossible. - **Class-based**: Social mobility is possible, and individuals are ranked based on economic and social factors. The U.S. is a class-based system. 10. **What is social mobility?**\ Social mobility refers to the ability to move up or down the social hierarchy. - **Upward mobility**: Moving to a higher class. - **Downward mobility**: Moving to a lower class. - **Intergenerational mobility**: Movement between generations (e.g., children doing better or worse than parents).\ Over time in the U.S., social mobility has slowed down. 11. **Ways to lessen the wealth gap?**\ Approaches include increasing access to education, progressive taxation, universal healthcare, and stronger social safety nets. 12. **Kate Pickett and Richard Wilkinson's conclusions about inequality?**\ They argue that greater economic inequality leads to a range of social problems, including higher rates of health issues, violence, and poor education outcomes. **[Sociology in Action Chapter 8 -- Constructing Sex, Gender, and Sexuality]** **Key Terms and Concepts** - **Cisgender**: Someone whose gender identity matches the sex they were assigned at birth. - **Gender**: The social roles, behaviors, and identities associated with being male, female, or another gender. - **Gender as social structure**: The idea that gender shapes social interactions, institutions, and power dynamics. - **Gender scripts**: Societal expectations for behavior based on gender. - **Gender segregation**: The separation of people into different roles or jobs based on gender. - **Gender socialization**: The process through which individuals learn gender roles. - **Gender wage gap**: The difference in earnings between men and women. - **Glass ceiling**: Invisible barriers that prevent women and minorities from advancing to top positions. - **Sex**: Biological attributes that define male and female. - **Sexual assault**: Unwanted sexual contact or behavior. - **Sexuality**: A person's sexual orientation, desires, and practices. - **Transgender**: A person whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. **Study Questions** 1. **Difference between sex and gender?** - **Sex**: Biological differences (e.g., male/female). - **Gender**: Social roles and behaviors expected of individuals based on sex. 2. **Why emphasize that gender is a social construct?**\ Sociologists emphasize that gender is learned and performed, not biologically determined, which allows for a broader understanding of how it varies across cultures and time. 3. **Intersex births in the U.S.?**\ About 1 in 2,000 live births is intersex, meaning the child's biological sex characteristics don\'t fit typical male or female categories. 4. **Essentialism in sex and gender?**\ Essentialism argues that sex and gender are biologically determined. A criticism is that it ignores cultural, social, and individual factors in shaping gender. 5. **Theoretical perspectives on gender?** - **Structural Functionalism**: Views gender roles as necessary for social stability. - **Conflict Theory**: Focuses on gender as a source of power and inequality. - **Symbolic Interactionism**: Emphasizes how individuals "do gender" through daily interactions.\ (Structural Functionalism is less used today.) 6. **How do institutions contribute to gender socialization?** - **Family**: The "second shift" refers to women doing more unpaid domestic work after their paid job. Emotional labor, managing family emotions, is often done by women. - **Schools**: Teachers and peers reinforce gender norms. The "hidden curriculum" teaches gender expectations. - **Media**: Advertisements, TV shows, and books often perpetuate stereotypical gender roles. 7. **What does it mean to "do gender"?**\ "Doing gender" means performing the behaviors and roles society expects from you based on your gender. 8. **Gender and work?** - Labor is often segregated by gender (e.g., nursing vs. engineering). - Male-dominated professions tend to pay more. - The **gender wage gap** persists, with women earning less for similar work, especially women of color. - The **glass ceiling** limits women\'s career advancement, while men in female-dominated fields may experience a "glass escalator" to higher positions. ### [Sociology in Action Chapter 9 -- Recognizing the Importance of Race] #### Key Terms and Concepts - **Discrimination**: Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, or ethnicity. - **Ethnic group**: A group of people who share common cultural traits, such as language, religion, or traditions. - **Ethnocentrism**: The belief that one\'s own culture or group is superior to others. - **Institutional discrimination**: Systemic and structural practices that disadvantage certain groups, even if not always deliberate. - **Prejudice**: Preconceived negative attitudes or judgments about people based on their group membership. - **Race**: A socially constructed category based on perceived physical characteristics, such as skin color. - **Racial hierarchy**: A social system that ranks races or ethnic groups in terms of perceived superiority or inferiority. - **Racism**: A belief in racial superiority and the systematic oppression of people perceived as racially inferior. - **Stereotypes**: Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a group of people. - **Colorblind ideology**: The belief that ignoring race will lead to racial equality, often masking systemic racial issues. - **Minimization**: A mechanism of colorblind ideology where racism is downplayed or deemed less significant. - **Naturalization**: The process by which social practices or inequalities are seen as \"natural\" or inevitable. - **Microaggressions**: Small, everyday slights or insults that may be unintentional but still perpetuate discrimination. ### Study Questions 1. **Difference between race and ethnicity?** - **Race** refers to categories of people who share physical characteristics such as skin color. - **Ethnicity** refers to shared cultural traits, such as language, religion, or customs.\ According to the **Human Genome Project**, biology plays a very small role in shaping racial differences---genetic variation within racial groups is greater than between them, showing that race is not biologically grounded. 2. **Racial and ethnic groups in the U.S. Census?**\ The **2020 Census** lists categories like White, Black or African American, Asian, Native American, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and Hispanic or Latino (which is an ethnicity, not a race). 3. **How have racial and ethnic classifications shifted over time?**\ Racial and ethnic categories have expanded and changed over time. For example, \"Mulatto\" was once used for people of mixed race, but it's no longer an official category. The Census now allows for multiple racial categories to be selected. 4. **Sociologists treat race as a social construction. What does this mean?**\ It means that race is not a biological reality but a category created by society that has social and political consequences. People are grouped based on perceived physical differences that are given social meaning. 5. **One-drop rule and Susie Guillory Phillips story?**\ The **one-drop rule** meant that anyone with even a single ancestor of African descent was considered Black. This shows how race is socially constructed and can be defined by society's arbitrary rules, not just biology. Susie Guillory Phillips\' story illustrates how racial classification can be fluid and dependent on social context. 6. **Difference between prejudice and discrimination?** - **Prejudice** is a biased attitude or belief. - **Discrimination** is the behavior or action that stems from prejudice, resulting in unequal treatment. 7. **How does racism encompass both ideology and institutional forces?**\ **Racism** is not only about individual prejudice but also about systems and structures that perpetuate racial inequalities. Institutions (e.g., schools, the legal system, or the workplace) can maintain racial disparities even when individuals do not express overt racist beliefs. 8. **Historical immigration policies shaped by racism?** - **Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882**: Banned Chinese immigration due to racial prejudice. - **Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907**: Aimed to limit Japanese immigration, reflecting racial exclusion. - **Hayes-Tilden Compromise of 1877**: Ended Reconstruction and allowed discriminatory Jim Crow laws to flourish. - **Immigration Acts of 1924 and 1965**: The 1924 Act restricted immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, based on racial hierarchy, while the 1965 Act aimed to reduce racial discrimination in immigration but still had racial and ethnic implications. 9. **Relationship between racism and power (Cahuilla people)?**\ In the case of the **Cahuilla people** in California, one narrative framed them as "exterminated" while another labeled them as "enslaved," reflecting different constructions of race and power. These narratives shaped how power was exercised over the Cahuilla and determined their social, legal, and economic status. 10. **Colorblind ideology?**\ Colorblind ideology asserts that ignoring race will lead to equality. However, it is problematic because it fails to acknowledge the systemic and historical impacts of racism, effectively perpetuating inequality by denying its existence. - **Abstract liberalism**: Using liberal ideas like individualism to argue against policies that address racial inequality. - **Minimization**: Downplaying the significance of race. - **Naturalization**: Viewing racial inequalities as \"natural\" or inevitable. - **Culturalization**: Blaming cultural differences for racial disparities. 11. **Racial disparities in various institutions?**\ Data show clear racial disparities in housing, education, health, the criminal justice system, and employment. Collecting data on race is crucial because it reveals the persistent inequalities and helps shape policies to address them. 12. **Recommendations to reduce prejudice and racism?**\ Recommendations include promoting diversity education, increasing representation in leadership positions, enacting anti-discrimination laws, and creating systemic changes to address racial inequalities. 13. **What is "weathering"?**\ **Weathering** refers to the cumulative toll of social, economic, and political disadvantage on the health of marginalized groups, particularly African Americans. Over time, the constant stress of discrimination leads to premature aging and health deterioration. 14. **What did Deva Pager show in her study?**\ **Deva Pager\'s study** demonstrated that race and criminal background significantly impact employment opportunities. Black applicants with no criminal record were less likely to receive a call back than White applicants with a criminal record. 15. **What was \#airbnbwhileblack?**\ This refers to the experiences of Black people being discriminated against when booking rentals on Airbnb. Black guests were more likely to be rejected or treated unfairly due to racial biases by hosts. ### [Capitalism and Neoliberalism] #### Key Terms and Concepts - **Capitalism**: An economic system where the means of production are privately owned, and goods and services are exchanged for profit. - **Neoliberalism**: An economic policy model that emphasizes free markets, deregulation, and a reduction in government intervention in the economy. - **GDP**: Gross Domestic Product; a measure of a country\'s total economic output. - **Trickle-down effect**: The theory that benefits provided to the wealthy will eventually \"trickle down\" to benefit the broader population. - **Invisible hand of the market**: The concept that individual self-interest in a free market leads to societal benefits. - **Free market**: An economic system where prices are determined by supply and demand, with minimal government interference. - **Regulation**: Government-imposed rules to control or manage economic activities. - **Deregulation**: The removal or reduction of government controls over economic activities. - **Economic growth**: The increase in the production of goods and services in an economy over time. - **First contradiction of capitalism**: The tendency for capitalism to undermine itself by creating conditions that reduce its long-term profitability (e.g., exploitation of labor). - **Second contradiction of capitalism**: The tendency for capitalism to degrade the environment, undermining the resources necessary for economic growth. ### Study Questions 1. **Three fundamental assumptions of capitalism?** - **Private property**: The means of production are privately owned. - **Profit motive**: Businesses operate to generate profit. - **Competition**: Markets function best when businesses compete with one another. 2. **How does a "free" market benefit the greater good?**\ A free market is believed to promote efficiency and innovation by allowing supply and demand to determine prices and distribution of resources. 3. **What are the supposed benefits of economic growth?**\ Economic growth is supposed to lead to improved living standards, more jobs, and overall prosperity. However, this growth often benefits the wealthy disproportionately, exacerbating inequality. 4. **What is GDP?**\ **GDP** is the total value of all goods and services produced within a country over a specific time period. It is often used as a proxy for a country's economic health. 5. **Problems with GDP as a measure?**\ GDP doesn\'t account for inequality, environmental degradation, or quality of life. Alternatives like the **Human Development Index (HDI)** focus on broader indicators such as health and education. 6. **Who first implemented neoliberal policies?**\ **Margaret Thatcher** (UK) and **Ronald Reagan** (USA) implemented neoliberal policies in the 1980s, aiming to reduce government intervention and promote free-market capitalism. 7. **Economic results of neoliberalism?**\ Neoliberal policies have led to growing income inequality, reduced social safety nets, and increased corporate power, while often failing to deliver promised economic benefits to the broader population. **[Education ]** #### Key Terms and Concepts - **Cultural capital**: The knowledge, skills, and cultural experiences that individuals acquire, which are valued in society and can influence their success in education and other institutions. - **Social capital**: The networks, relationships, and social ties that individuals have, which can provide support, opportunities, and access to resources. - **Economic capital**: Financial resources or wealth that individuals or families possess, which can influence their access to educational opportunities. - **Symbolic capital**: The prestige, recognition, or social status that individuals or groups hold, which can give them influence in various social and institutional settings. - **Meritocracy**: The belief or system where individuals are rewarded and succeed based on their abilities, talent, and effort, regardless of their background. - **Manifest and latent functions**: - **Manifest functions**: The intended and observable functions of an institution, such as education providing knowledge and skills. - **Latent functions**: The unintended and often hidden functions, such as socializing students into societal norms or reproducing inequalities. ### Study Questions 1. **What are the purposes of our education system?**\ The purposes of the education system include the transmission of knowledge, the socialization of individuals into societal norms and values, preparation for the workforce, and the development of citizenship. It also serves to promote social mobility and individual success. 2. **What are the mechanisms that reproduce inequalities through the school system?**\ Several mechanisms reproduce inequalities in education: - **Unequal funding**: Schools in wealthier areas have more resources, while schools in poorer areas may lack basic resources. - **Curriculum biases**: The curriculum may reflect the values and history of dominant groups, marginalizing others. - **Tracking**: Students are often placed in different academic tracks based on perceived ability, which can limit opportunities for lower-income or minority students. - **Teacher expectations**: Teachers may have different expectations for students based on race, gender, or socioeconomic status, affecting student performance. - **Cultural bias**: Standardized tests and teaching methods may be biased toward students from certain cultural backgrounds, making it harder for others to succeed. 3. **Why is the system failing women? Racial and ethnic minorities?**\ The education system often fails women and racial/ethnic minorities because of structural inequalities: - Women may face gender biases, such as being steered away from STEM fields. - Racial and ethnic minorities may experience lower expectations, lack of representation, or curriculum that does not reflect their experiences. - Both groups may face additional challenges such as poverty, language barriers, or limited access to resources. 4. **According to Pierre Bourdieu, why does the school system reproduce inequality despite the good will of teachers?**\ Bourdieu argued that the school system reproduces inequality through the concept of **cultural capital**. Students from higher social classes have more cultural capital (e.g., familiarity with dominant cultural norms, language, and behaviors), which aligns with the expectations of the school system. Teachers, despite their good intentions, may unknowingly privilege students who already possess this capital, thus reinforcing social inequalities. 5. **Why does Bourdieu say that the school system legitimizes inequality?**\ Bourdieu argued that the school system legitimizes inequality by presenting educational success as a result of individual merit, when in fact it often depends on the distribution of cultural, social, and economic capital. This ideology of meritocracy hides the structural inequalities in society, making them seem natural and justified. ### [Sociology in Action Chapter 13 -- Experiencing Health, Illness, and Medical Care] ### Study Questions 1. **What does WHO stand for?**\ **WHO** stands for the **World Health Organization**. 2. **What is the WHO's definition of health?**\ According to the WHO, health is not just the absence of disease or infirmity but a **state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being**. 3. **What do sociologists mean by "social determinants of health"? How are they different from the more classic explanations about health and health risks?**\ **Social determinants of health** refer to the social, economic, and environmental factors that influence health, such as income, education, race, and access to healthcare. These are different from more traditional explanations of health, which often focus solely on biology or individual behaviors. Sociologists argue that health disparities are deeply tied to social inequality, not just personal choices. 4. **What were the disproportionate impacts of COVID-19? Why? What did we learn from the pandemic or what did the pandemic highlight?**\ COVID-19 disproportionately impacted marginalized groups, particularly racial and ethnic minorities, low-income communities, and the elderly. These groups faced higher rates of infection and death due to factors such as lack of access to healthcare, pre-existing health conditions, overcrowded living conditions, and discrimination in medical treatment. The pandemic highlighted deep social inequalities and the role that systemic issues like racism and class play in health outcomes. 5. **What is the hormone of stress?**\ The hormone associated with stress is **cortisol**. Chronic stress leads to prolonged high levels of cortisol, which can have detrimental effects on the body, including weakened immune function, higher blood pressure, and increased risk of chronic diseases. 6. **How does the following quote make sense now: "There are good reasons to think that, in general, a society has the mortality it finds convenient, and that the number of dead, and their spread across different age groups, reflect the importance that society attaches to life span." -- Halbwachs, 1912**\ Halbwachs\' quote reflects the idea that society's health priorities and policies often determine who lives and dies and at what age. Societies tend to value the lives of certain groups over others, and this is reflected in health disparities. For example, the higher mortality rates among marginalized populations may indicate that their lives are not valued as much as those of wealthier or more powerful groups. 7. **What was the Tuskegee experiment and why did it impact trust from people of color in the medical field?**\ The **Tuskegee Experiment** (1932-1972) was a clinical study in which African American men with syphilis were left untreated to observe the progression of the disease, even after penicillin became a known cure. The study lasted for decades, and participants were not informed about the true nature of the experiment or given proper treatment. This exploitative study eroded trust in the medical community, particularly among African Americans, and contributed to long-standing health disparities and skepticism towards healthcare institutions. 8. **What is the weathering hypothesis/theory as described by Arline Geronimus?**\ The **weathering hypothesis** proposed by Arline Geronimus suggests that the cumulative effects of social, economic, and political stress---particularly racial discrimination---cause premature aging and deteriorating health among African Americans. Chronic stress from facing discrimination and inequality leads to early onset of health problems. 9. **What are some of the many negative impacts of chronic stress on health? How does that relate to discrimination?**\ Chronic stress can lead to numerous health problems, including hypertension, cardiovascular disease, weakened immune function, diabetes, and mental health issues like anxiety and depression. Discrimination contributes to chronic stress by subjecting individuals to repeated negative experiences based on their race, gender, or other identities. This stress accumulates over time and negatively affects physical and mental health, especially among marginalized groups.