Life Span 2 Final Exam Notes.pptx

Life Span 2 Final Exam Notes STUDY GUIDE TOPICS 1. Working Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 2. Long-Term Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 3. Remote Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategi...

Life Span 2 Final Exam Notes STUDY GUIDE TOPICS 1. Working Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 2. Long-Term Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 3. Remote Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 4. Autobiographical Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 5. Implicit Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? 6. Age Differences in Encoding & Retrieval: What Are They? What age differences, if any, for each? Strategies for each? 7. Training Memory Skills 8. The Case for Trait Stability: The Five-Factor Model 9. Jung's Theory 10.Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development 11.Loevinger's Theory 12.Theories Based on Life Transitions 13.Conclusions about Personal Concerns 14.Whitbourne's Identity Theory 15.Possible Selves 16.Developmental Aspects of Friendships 17.Sibling Relationships 18. Love Relationships 19.Violence in Relationships 20.Singlehood 21.Marriage 22.Divorce and Remarriage 23.Widowhood 24.Becoming a Grandparent 25.Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents 26.The Changing Nature of Work 27.Occupational Development, including theories of Super, Holland 28.Job Satisfaction, including relationship with age 29.Bias and Discrimination 30.Juggling Multiple Roles 31.What Does Being Retired Mean? 32.Adjusting to Retirement 33.Dealing with One's Own Death 34.The Hospice Option 35.A Life-Span View of Loss Through Death 36.Stages of Grief 37.Reactions to Grief and Grief Duration WEEK 6 LECTURE SLIDES Working Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? Long-Term Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? Remote Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? Autobiographical Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? Implicit Memory: What Is It? What age differences are present, if any? Strategies? Age Differences in Encoding & Retrieval: What Are They? What age differences, if any, for each? Strategies for each? Training Memory Skills The Information-Processing Model: Review from week 5.  One of the most popular models of cognition.  It is based on a computer metaphor.  The information-processing model is based on three assumptions (Neisser, 1976) ▪ #1 Active processing  The individual actively involved in transforming incoming information ▪ #2 Both quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance can be examined.  How much is remembered and what kinds of information are remembered ▪ #3 Information processed through a stage-like series of “stores” The Information-Processing Model (cont.): Review from week 5.  Three fundamental questions for adult development and aging ▪ Is there evidence of age differences in how we store information at different stages (e.g. memory)? ▪ Is there evidence for age differences in how we process information (e.g. attend)? ▪ Can the age differences in the storage aspects be explained through differences in processing? The Information-Processing Model: Sensory Memory: Review from week 5.  Sensory memory ▪ It is the first level of processing incoming information from the environment  This is where new incoming information is first registered. ▪ Information is represented similarly to how it was originally sensed in environment ▪ Is a large capacity but very short-lived store ▪ Only if we pay attention will the representation will be kept ▪ Bottom line: Age differences in sensory memory are not common. Attention: Review from week 5.  Which information is processed beyond sensory memory is determined by attention.  Attention consists of 3 interdependent aspects: ▪ Selective attention ▪ Divided attention ▪ Sustained attention Age Differences in Selective Attention: Major Conclusions: Review from week 5.  2 Major Conclusions: ▪ BOTTOM LINE: Age differences in selective attention on visual search are greatest…  1) When task complexity increases (e.g. large search task, many distractors)  2) When little information is available to assist performance (i.e., spatial cues) ▪ With spatial cues, age differences decrease   REC? Why might this be? ▪ Hasher & Zack (1988) inhibition hypothesis  Older adults have more task-irrelevant thoughts, thus fewer processing resources (or available attention) are left for processing targets  In other words, they have greater difficulty in inhibiting processing of (filtering out) irrelevant information. ▪ According to this assertion, older adults have trouble selectively attending to relevant info and ignoring irrelevant information.  Especially when info presented in same modality ▪ Considerable support for this on specific tasks, but mixed findings exist. ▪ Bottom line, older adults can have more trouble filtering out irrelevant information than younger adults on certain tasks. ▪ REC? Divided Attention and Age Differences: Review from week 5.  Divided Attention:  The degree to which information competes for our attention at a given time ▪ For example, listening effectively to this lecture and to small talk among classmates ▪ How well we are able to do more than one task at a time involves how much information we can process at once (attentional capacity)  If one task uses too much of our attentional capacity, are ability to complete another task will suffer. ▪ Research demonstrates that age differences in divided attention are found in SOME situations and not others  The key appears to be the relative complexity of the task ▪ The more complex the tasks are, the greater the age differences; the less complex the tasks, the smaller the age differences ▪ Practice reduces age differences in divided attention.  Older adults may be able to learn to divide their attention effectively through practice. ▪ In sum, divided attention does not necessarily decline with age. Older adults only do worse than younger adults when asked to complete multiple DIFFICULT tasks simultaneously. REC? Age Differences and Sustained Attention: Review from week 5.  Existing research on this sustained attention indicates: ▪ That older adults do not identify as many targets as younger adults (vigilance performance) on sustained attention tasks  But no age differences appear in the rate at which performance deteriorates (vigilance decrement) ▪ Age differences on vigilance performance become greater…  As aerobic fitness level decreases in older people  As task complexity increases (e.g. presentation rate of target increases)  Predictability of the where target will appear decreases  In sum, as long as vigilance tasks are simple (low presentation rate of target) and spatial location of target is predictable, age differences are typically absent.  However, if presentation rate of target increases or spatial location of target is unpredictable, age differences may emerge.  RECS? Speed of Processing  A major explanation of age-related decline in cognitive performance speed is decreased speed of processing. ▪ As we age, we become slower at processing information.  *****This is one of the most robust findings in the gero literature.****** ▪ Though this seems to be process specific (varying across tasks), rather than global (across all tasks)  However, debate continues ▪ Speed of processing reflects the outcomes of sensory memory and attention  It reflects how quickly and efficiently early steps of information processing are completed ▪ Reaction time is an index of speed Reaction Time Tasks: Review from week 5.  Simple reaction time tasks involves responding as quickly as possible to a stimulus ▪ In general, most age differences on this task are due to older adults taking longer to decide to make a response  Choice reaction time tasks involves making separate responses to separate stimuli as quickly as possible ▪ Older adults do not prepare as well as younger adults to make a response,  Complex reaction time tasks involves making complicated decisions about how to respond based on the stimulus observed ▪ Driving is a task that involves complex reactions ▪ Consistent results: When required to make complex responses, older adults are at an increased disadvantage Bottom line: there is much evidence of slower processing speed with age. ▪ This can affect one’s ability to attend to and select relevant information as one ages. Working Memory  The active processes and structures involved in holding information in mind and using that information to solve a problem, make a decision, or learn new information ▪ It is where information passed from sensory memory obtains meaning and is transformed for longer storage ▪ VERY IMPORTANT! Working Memory (cont.)  Working memory has a limited capacity, and only when effort is given to the information does it remain for further processing. ▪ We need to rehearse info in working memory, otherwise it will be forgotten.  There are some declines in working memory with increased age, ▪ though declines do not appear to be universal  Spatial working memory shows more declines than verbal working memory ▪ Salthouse and colleagues  Most declines seem to be due to changes in speed of processing, which then effects working memory Long-Term Memory  Involves the capacity to deal with large amounts of information over long time periods (few sec/min to few hours to years) ▪ Long-term memory has many different components  Including, explicit memory, episodic memory, semantic memory, implicit memory, and autobiographical memory LONG TERM MEMORY EXPLICIT (DECLARATI VE) SEMANTIC (FACTS) EPISODIC (EVENTS) IMPLICIT (PROCEDUR AL) SKILLS CONDITIONED RESPONSES Long-Term Memory (cont.)  Explicit memory ▪ The deliberate and conscious remembering of information ▪ Effortful and conscious ▪ Performance on explicit memory tasks declines with age Long-Term Memory: Episodic versus Semantic Memory  Episodic memory ▪ The class of memory having to do with the conscious recollection of information from a specific event or time  Recall of recent event such as Winter Break  Important for everyday life. Did I took medication? Did I get what needed from the grocery store?  Semantic memory ▪ Memory for the meaning of words, concepts, and general knowledge/facts of world that is not tied to any specific occurrences of events in time (i.e. general world knowledge)  For example, recalling words to work a crossword puzzle  Who was the first president of the United States? Episodic Memory  Episodic memory can be assessed by either recall or recognition ▪ Recall involves remembering information without hints or cues  For example, name the 5 General Principles from the Ethics Code ▪ Recognition involves selecting previously learned information from among several items  For example, a multiple-choice exam. Episodic Memory (cont.)  When older adults say, “My memory isn’t as sharp as it used to be”, they are referring to their episodic memory (Bee & Bjorklund).  There are large age differences in episodic memory. ▪ Older adults show more problems with episodic memory than younger adults.  Age differences are larger on recall tests than on recognition tests. Older adults tend to omit more information, include more intrusions, and repeat previously recalled information. ▪ Why? Older adults are less spontaneous in their use of internal memory strategy.  Thus, they don’t spontaneously do things such as organize information in a way to help them learn and recall it later.  Declines in episodic memory begin in early 20’s and slowly decline into 90’s. Episodic Memory (cont.)  Age differences in episodic memory can be reduced by ▪ Providing time to practice learning information ▪ Using familiar stimuli:  Words that are meaningful to older adults. ▪ Instructing them how to EFFECTIVELY use memory strategies to help organize information they need to learn ▪ Improve beliefs about memory efficacy Semantic Memory  Semantic memory ▪ Memory for the meaning of words, concepts, and general knowledge/facts of world that is not tied to any specific occurrences of events in time (i.e. general world knowledge)  Age differences in semantic memory ▪ Semantic memory is SPARED with age, partly due to the ability to draw on prior experience ▪ * One exception…. older adults have increased word finding difficulties  Tip-of-the-tongue experiences ▪ When you feel you know a name or word but can’t seem to find it ▪ Thus, even some types of highly familiar information hard to retrieve with age Remote Memory  Information that must be kept for a very long time ▪ Also known as tertiary memory ▪ This includes past life experiences, such as autobiographical memory Autobiographical Memory  A particular aspect of remote memory which involves remembering information and events from one’s own life ▪ Results from research on autobiographical memory are mixed  Recognition of faces and memory for past behavior appears to be maintained  However, memory for details about traumatic events may not be remembered as well with age.  Other events with great personal relevance are vividly remembered (Flashbulb memories) can still be remembered with age Autobiographical Memory (cont.)  Bahrick and colleagues ▪ Found that recognition of faces from yearbooks was  Over 90% up to 15 years after graduation  And still over 70% when people were in their 70s  Wagenaar and Groeneweg ▪ Found that while testimonies of concentration camp survivors up to 40 years later were full of facts, much of the extreme trauma endured was left out  In older adults, happier memories seem to be preserved much better than negative memories. Autobiographical Memory: Flashbulb Memories  Flashbulb memories are highly memorable events with personal relevance ▪ Such as JFK’s assassination, space shuttle Challenger explosion  Older adults have less flashbulb memories  Flashbulb memories that occur earlier in life are remembered better Autobiographical Memory: Flashbulb Memories (cont.) Figure 7.1 The distribution of flashbulb memories produced by younger and older adults. Source: Fitzgerald, J. (1999). Autobiographical memory and social cognition. In T. M. Hess & F. Blanchard-Fields (Eds.), Social cognition and aging (p. 161). San Diego: Academic Press. Implicit Memory  Implicit memory ▪ Unconscious and effortless ▪ The facilitation or change in task performance that is due to having been exposed to information as some earlier time, but does not involve explicit memory  There are ALMOST no age differences on implicit memory tasks  Why? ▪ Perhaps, the parts of the brain involved in implicit memory are more spared from biological changes of age than parts of the brain involved in explicit memory. Sources of Age Differences in Memory: Encoding and Retrieval  Use of strategies to learn information: Older adults do not spontaneously elaborate on incoming information as well as younger adults. ▪ * Specifically…elaborative rehearsal ▪ This suggests age differences in how information gets into memory (ENCODING).  Older adults show greater frequency of tip of tongue difficulties. This suggests age differences in accessing information out of memory (ie. RETRIEVAL)  Brain imaging research shows that older adult have significantly less blood flow in the brain, less frontal lobe activation, and less lateralization during the encoding process than younger adults.  Both retrieval and encoding involved. Encoding may be especially important in explaining age differences.  Implications: 1. Age related decrements in memory are complex 2. Not due to changes in a single process 3. Theories must take individual differences into account Sources of Age Differences in Memory: Prospective Memory Prospective Memory – Remembering to perform a planned action in the future – Differences between event-based and time-based future events ▪ Time-based remembering is more age related. Sources of Age Differences in Memory: Misinformation and Memory  Source memory ▪ The ability to remember the source of a familiar event or whether the event was imagined or experienced  Source memory declines with age  Older adults are less accurate at many sourcememory tasks  Older adults show overactivation of the prefrontal cortex when confronted with source memory tasks.  False memory ▪ Memory of items or events that did not occur ▪ Older adults are more susceptible to false memories  As a result older adults could be more susceptible to deceptions and scams Self-Evaluations of Memory Abilities  One’s self evaluations about one’s memory can affect life and personal distress level.  Self-evaluation of memory involves making ratings of one's own memory ability  Aspects of memory self-evaluation ▪ Metamemory  The knowledge one has about how memory works and what one believes to be true about it ▪ Memory monitoring  Being aware of current memory activity Age Differences in Metamemory ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪  Older adults Know less about memory and its capacity View memory as less stable Expect declines in memory with age, particularly for names Perceive they have little control over their memory Memory Self Efficacy  One’s belief about how well one will perform in a specific situation or on a specific task ▪ Memory self-efficacy is important in understanding how people make judgments about performance  Even before they have experience with a task ▪ Assumed to play a key role in individual’s mastery of the environment as we age ▪ Memory successes tend to bolster self-efficacy and failures reduce one’s belief of memory competence Age Differences in Memory Monitoring ▪ Memory monitoring  Being aware of current memory activity  With task knowledge or experience, age differences usually are absent in monitoring of performance on memory tasks. Normal and Abnormal Memory Aging  One way to separate normal from abnormal aging is to note whether memory changes are affecting daily functioning ▪ Some diseases are marked by severe memory impairments  For example, dementia  However, in many cases telling the difference between normal and abnormal memory impairments is difficult  Very important to R/O other causes Memory and Mental Health  Several factors are related to or can cause memory problems, including dementia and depression ▪ Dementia often causes permanent severe declines in cognition and memory  In the case of Alzheimer’s disease, the whole system is involved Memory and Mental Health (cont.) ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪  Depression can cause A decreased ability to learn and recall new material A tendency to leave out important information A decreased ability to organize Less effective memory strategies Increased sensitivity to sad memories Decreased psychomotor speed Clinical Memory Tests  Neuropsychological tests ▪ Assess broad aspects of cognitive functioning, including memory, attention, language, and problem solving  Such tests are designed to assess specific brainbehavior relations Clinical Memory Tests (cont.)  Behavioral assessments ▪ Involve having people perform everyday memory tasks ▪ These assessments measure global decline, not declines that occur in specific domains of functioning Clinical Memory Tests (cont.)  Self-report scales ▪ Assess a variety of memory situations ▪ They correlate moderately with performance on memory tasks and standardized memory tests ▪ Scores on memory self-evaluation questionnaires correlate strongly with depression Clinical Memory Tests (cont.)  Rating scales ▪ Instruments designed to assess memory from the viewpoint of an observer  Usually a mental health professional ▪ For example, mental status exams and checklists Memory, Nutrition, and Drugs  Poor nutrition and many types of drugs can cause memory problems ▪ Niacin and vitamin B12 are linked with memory impairment ▪ Alcohol abused over long periods of time can cause severe memory loss ▪ Some prescription and over-the-counter medications can have major effects on memory  For example, tranquillizers and sedatives Remediating Memory Problems: Training Memory Skills  The E-I-E-I-O framework ▪ Based on explicit-implicit aspects of memory and external-internal strategies is a useful way to conceptualize memory improvement  Explicit memory ▪ Involves conscious and intentional recollection of information  Implicit memory ▪ Involves effortless and unconscious recollection of information  Aids used with this type of memory are believed to work well for those with dementia. Remediating Memory Problems: Training Memory Skills (cont.)  External strategies rely on environmental resources ▪ These include taking notes, making lists, and using calendars  Internal strategies rely on mental processes ▪ These include such things as rehearsal, organization, mnemonics, imagery, and the method of loci Remediating Memory Problems: Training Memory Skills (cont.) Remediating Memory Problems: Memory Aids  External memory aids are common and widely available ▪ For example, address books, pill boxes, and bulletin boards ▪ These external aids have been shown to be effective in improving memory in older adults  Internal memory aids ▪ These include rehearsal, mental imagery, and spaced retrieval ▪ Practicing remembering with the use of internal aids helps to improve memory significantly in older adults Remediating Memory Problems: Exercising Memory and Memory Drugs  Exercising memory ▪ Memory should be exercised like any muscle ▪ Practice improves memory  Memory drugs ▪ Usually focus on Acetylcholine ▪ They have only been shown to have modest, short-term effects Remediating Memory Problems: Combining Strategies  Which memory strategy works best depends on the situation ▪ For optimal improvement, the best approach is to tailor specific strategies to specific situations  This often involves using multiple techniques  When specific needs are addressed, the greatest benefits are found  Individual differences are important to address as well ▪ Self-efficacy ▪ Anxiety about memory WEEK 7 LECTURE SLIDES The Case for Trait Stability: The Five-Factor Model Jung's Theory Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development Loevinger's Theory Theories Based on Life Transitions Conclusions about Personal Concerns Whitbourne's Identity Theory Possible Selves Does Personality Change with Age?  Two sides of the debate:  1) Personality is Stable ▪ We tend to assume personality is complex, but stable over time ▪ For example, “This is so out of character for her” ▪ Historically, theorists such as Freud believed personality development complete by childhood.  2) Personality Can Change. ▪ We assume that we change undesirable aspects of our personality ▪ This is often why we go to therapy ▪ Theoriests such as Jung believed personality shaped throughout life. ▪ THE ANSWER IS IT DEPENDS….  ….on how you conceptualize personality and how you measure it. McAdam’s (1994) Three Parallel Personality Levels  Based on review of a multiple personality theories and ways of measuring personality, McAdams conceptualizes personality in terms of 3 levels. ▪ 1) Dispositional traits  Aspects of personality that are consistent across different contexts and can be compared across a group along a continuum ▪ Example: shyness 2) Personal Concerns Things that are important to people, their goals, and their major concerns in life. In other words, what are they consciously trying to get done in this stage of life. 3) Life Narratives Integrative aspects of personality (pulls things together) to give a person an identity and purpose in life AS A PERSON MOVES FROM DISPOSITIONAL TRAITS TO LIFE NARRATIVE, THE MORE LIKELY IT IS THAT CHANGE In “PERSONALITY” WILL BE OBSERVED. Dispositional Traits Across Adulthood  Dispositional traits ▪ Aspects of personality that are consistent across different contexts and can be compared across a group along a continuum Dispositional Traits Across Adulthood (cont.)  According to Costa and McCrae, personality traits are based on three assumptions ▪ Traits are based on comparisons across people ▪ The qualities of a trait must be distinctive ▪ Traits are generally stable ▪ In brief, traits are enduring, distinguishable, ways in which individuals differ from one another. The Case for Stability: The Five-Factor Model  Costa and McCrae helped narrow down the dizzying number of traits into 5 factors or dimensions. (ie. Groups of traits)  Costa and McCrae (1985, 1992) developed a five-dimensional model of personality (THE BIG FIVE).  People who are high on one dimension tend to be high on all the traits within that dimension ▪ 1) Neuroticism: anxiety, hostility, self-consciousness, depression, impulsiveness, vulnerability ▪ 2) Extroversion: split into two groups interpersonal traits: warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness,  Temperamental traits: activity, excitement-seeking, and positive energy  ▪ 3) Openness to experience: imagination, sensitivity to experience, willingness to try new things, knowledge seeking, open-minded in values, experience feelings strongly ▪ 4) Agreeableness: trust, straight-forwardness, altruistic, compliance, modesty, tender-mindedness. Opposite of antagonism ▪ 5) Conscientiousness: self-discipline, and deliberation competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, Dispositional Traits Across Adulthood  What Happens to Dispositional Traits Across Adulthood? ▪ Costa and McCrae found:  Over a 12-year period, 10 personality traits measured by GZTS (a temperament survey) remained stable. ▪ However, other researchers found there is also some evidence for change:  Agreeableness increases with age.  Conscientiousness appears to increase with peak in middle age.  Neuroticism often disappears or is much less apparent in late life.  Extraversion and openness decrease with age Dispositional Traits Across Adulthood  What Happens to Dispositional Traits? ▪ Current consensus of change in the Big Five with increasing age  Absence of neuroticism  Presence of agreeableness and conscientiousness ▪ Studies also show decrease in openness to new experiences with increasing age. Dispositional Traits Across Adulthood  What Happens to Dispositional Traits? How do we make sense of both stablilty and change in dispositional traits?  Ursula Staudinger and colleagues found that personality takes on two forms: Personality Adjustment: Developmental changes in terms of their adaptive value and functionality. Personality Growth: Ideal end states such as increased self-transcendence, wisdom, and integrity Growth can’t occur without adjustment. Since personality growth (reaching ideal end states) does not occur in everyone, people develop strategies for personality adjustment in later life. Longitudinal Studies of Dispositional Traits  CONCLUSIONS ABOUT DISPOSITIONAL TRAITS ▪ BASIC INDICATORS OF PERSONALITY GROWTH TEND TO BE STABLE OR DECLINE  Not normative ▪ INCREASES IN PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT WITH AGE ACROSS MANY PEOPLE  could be normative. ▪ Why? PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENTS IN ADULTHOOD OCCUR IN RESPONSE TO CHANGING DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS.HOWEVER PERSONALITY GROWTH DOESN’T USUALLY OCCUR EXCEPT UNDER CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES  In short, some change, but a lot of stability in dispositional traits. Personal Concerns and Qualitative Stages in Adulthood  Personal concerns: the next level of McAdams’ model ▪ Personal concerns are conscious descriptions of what people are trying to accomplish and the goals they create.  In short what the person wants at a particular stage in life  Personal concerns take into account a person’s sociocultural context in development ( the circumstances that have helped shape their lives).  This is in contrast to traits, which tend to ignore context  We should expect change at this level, given the importance of sociocultural influences in development.  Some of the best known theories belong to Jung and Erikson Jung's Theory ▪ Jung was the first theorist to discuss personality development during adulthood (broke away from Freud)  He invented the notion of midlife “crisis” ▪ He emphasized the need for balance among the various aspects of personality  Such as, introversion-extroversion and masculinity-femininity ▪ Jung argues that people move toward integrating these dimensions as they age, with midlife being an especially important period In middle-age, we begin to shift from extraversion to introversion As we grow older, we allow opposite gendered aspects of our personalities to be expressed. Jung’s major contribution was to first assert that that aspects of our personality continue to develop throughout adulthood. Personal Concerns: Later Theorists  Based on Jung’s theory of continued personality development in adulthood,  Later theorists described orderly, sequential stages related to personality development: ▪ Erik Erikson Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development  Erikson was the first theorist to develop a truly “lifespan” theory of personality development ▪ Personality develops from an interaction between internal psychological processes and external sociocultural influences  His eight stages represent the eight great struggles (“crises”) that he believed people must undergo  Each struggle has its own special time of importance when it occurs (The epigenetic principle). ▪ These struggles are forced upon us as we reach certain ages and move through life  Each struggle must be resolved to continue development ▪ resolution = interactive process b/w inner psychological resources and outer social influences ▪ Successful resolution of struggle leads to a psychosocial strength ▪ Unsuccessful resolution impairs further development and resolution of future struggles.  Cumulative effects Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont.)  The sequence of Erikson’s stages are ▪ Trust versus mistrust: (ages 0-1, infant needs to develop trust in world) ▪ Autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 2-3, one learns they can act intentionally but fears responsibility of control) ▪ Initiative versus guilt (ages 4-5: explore environment, but may feel guilty if too forceful) ▪ Industry versus inferiority (6-12: wants to work hard to accomplish task, but risks the feeling he won’t be able to do it) ▪ Identity versus identity confusion 13-18: need to develop own identity, but torn over the all the possibilities of who one can become) ▪ Intimacy versus isolation (19- 40 (YOUNG ADULTHOOD): ▪ ▪ being intimate with another but fears losing one’s own sense of self)  Need strong identity prior to entering relationships where identity will be fused with another. If so will have strong relationships with love. If not, relationship will feel shallow and individual will feel isolated Generativity versus stagnation (40-65 (MIDDLE ADULTHOOD): concern for society and the next generation vs. being self-absorbed:  need to do something that transcends death by being nurturant and “giving back” to community that will outlast them. If do so, will feel useful and be caring. Ego Integrity versus despair (65+ (OLDER ADULTHOOD): evaluate life and accomplishments to derive meaning from them vs. having regret about life )  If have ego integrity will be ready for death, will feel used time wisely, have a sense of satisfaction, fulfillment, and feel lived a meaningful life. Wisdom attained. Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development (cont.) isolation Clarifications and Expansions of Erikson’s Theory  Logan argues that the eight stages are really a cycle of themes that repeats with multiple resolutions within each theme needed throughout life ▪ Trust → achievement → wholeness trust/mistrust ▪ Shame/doubt initiative/guilt industry/inferiority identity/role confusion ▪ Intimacy/isolation generativity/stagnation integrity vs. despair  Slater (2003) expands on Logan’s reasoning on the central crisis of generativity vs. stagnation and includes struggles between….to accomplish and be recognized for accomplish ▪ Pride and embarrassment ▪ Responsibility and ambivalence ▪ Career productivity and inadequacy ▪ Parenthood and self-absorption Personal Concerns and Qualitative Stages in Adulthood  Clarifications and Expansions of Erikson’s Theory ▪ Patterson (2012) speculates that a fifth stage re: emerging adulthood: s needed between adolescence(identity vs. role confusion) and young adulthood (intimacy vs. isolation):  incarnation versus impudence:  This crisis is resolved through: experimental sexuality temporal and spatial social and intimate relationships interdependence and self-sufficiency versus dependence and helplessness relativist and absolutist ideological experimentation Clarifications and Extension’s of Erikson’s Theory  Kotre contends that adult experience is rich (not so simplistic with never ending crises) ▪ Adults have many opportunities to express generativity that are not equivalent and do not lead to a general state  Generativity as a set of impulses felt at different times and in different settings  Five types of generativity ▪ Biological and parental: raise kids ▪ Technical: pass on skills to next generation ▪ Cultural: be a mentor ▪ Agentic: do something that transcends death ▪ Communal: mutually, interpersonal participation Research on Generativity: McAdams’s Model  Generativity has received much attention in the research.  McAdam’s model is one of the best empirically based efforts to show how generativity results: ▪ Complex interconnections between societal and inner forces occur which help motivate ▪ Concern for the next generation is then created which combines with belief in the goodness of the human enterprise ▪ This leads to generative commitment ▪ This leads to behavioral action ▪ Personal meaning can result from generativity as it is integrated into one’s personal life story, serving to create personal identity. Research on Generativity: McAdams’s Model (cont.) Figure 10.1 McAdams’s model of generativity. Source: McAdams, D. P., H. M. Hart, & S. Mzrnna, “The Anatomy of Generativity,” 1998, p. 7. In D. P. McAdams & E. de St. Aubin (eds.), Generativity & adult development: How and why we care for the next generation. Copyright © 1998 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted by permission. Personal Concerns and Qualitative Stages in Adulthood (11of 16)  Research indicates that: ▪ In middle and older adults, there is a greater preoccupation with generativity themes than in younger adults. ▪ Middle-aged adults make more generative comments than younger adults. ▪ Generativity may be a stronger predictor of emotional well-being in midlife adults. ▪ Leaving a legacy is an important aspect of generativity. ▪ GENERATIVE CONCERN AND GENERATIVE ACTION ARE FOUND IN ADULTS OF ALL AGES, BUT….  BUT THEY ARE PARTICULARLY EVIDENT IN MIDDLE- AGED ADULTS (partial support for Erickson) ▪ Generativity is present across cultures and LGB individuals Theories Based on Life Transitions  Other theorists focused on life transitions to understand Personal Concerns over the lifespan.  Life transition theories are the most popular theories of adult personality development ▪ Received attention in the 1970’s  Based on the idea that adults go through a series of life transitions or passages ▪ However, few of these theories have substantial databases, and none are based on representative samples  Life transitions theories tend to overestimate the commonality of age-linked transitions ▪ Indeed, not everyone goes through these transitions ▪ What actually happens may be a combination of expectations and socialization. The Midlife Crisis  A key idea in life transition theories is the midlife “crisis”, ▪ Western culture  However, very little data supports the claim that all people inevitably experience a crisis in middle age  Instead, mid-life seems to be a time of becoming aware of both gains and losses,  Time to re-evaluate and make needed changes  Better termed as MIDLIFE CORRECTION! Conclusions about Personal Concerns  CONCLUSIONS ABOUT PERSONAL CONCERNS: ▪ Evidence supports a sharp change in personal concerns as adults age. ▪ Change is not specific to an age but is dependent on many factors. ▪ All agree that there is a need for more research in this area. Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self:  The third level of personality involves SENSE OF WHO THE PERSON IS (sense of who they are, how they got to be who they are, and sense who they might become) Examined through life narrative, identity, and the sense of self ▪ Recently, theorists have begun to focus on how one’s identity and sense of self continue to develop throughout adulthood. Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self: McAdams’s Model  McAdams’s life-story model ▪ The way to truly understand one’s identity is through one’s life story. ▪ He argues that people create a life story  That is an internalized narrative with a beginning, middle, and an anticipated ending ▪ In the life story, there is an integration of the person’s reconstructed past, their perception of the present, and their anticipated future. ▪ The life story is CREATED AND REVISED THROUGHOUT ADULTHOOD as people change Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self (1 of 11)  McAdams’ Life-Story Model – People create a life story that is based on where the person has been, where the person is going, and who he or she will become. – It is created and revised throughout adulthood as people change and the changing environment places different demands on them (early, middle, late). – Generativity marks the attempt to create an appealing story “ending” that will generate new beginnings for future generations. Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self (2 of 11) McAdams’ Life-Story Model ▪ Most important to life stories is the changing personal identity reflected in the emotions conveyed in the story. ▪ Two common themes are:  agency (reflecting power, achievement, and autonomy) and  communion (reflecting love, intimacy, and a sense of belonging). ▪ Life stories indicate one’s beliefs and values with reformulations occurring at both conscious and unconscious levels. McAdams’s Life-Story Model ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪  There are seven essential features of a life story Narrative tone: emotional feel Image: unique images that make up story, symbols, metaphors Theme: (most common recurring themes: what is person trying to attain over time? agency, communion,) Ideological setting: background of beliefs and values Nuclear episodes: key events or life turning points(+ or -) Character: expression of idealization of self An ending: What legacy is left? What new beginnings are created? McAdams’s Life-Story Model (cont.)  Adults are said to reformulate their life stories throughout adulthood both at the conscious and unconscious levels ▪ The goal is to have a life story that is  Coherent (make sense)  Credible (believable)  Open to new possibilities (flexible as needed)  Reconciling of opposite aspects of oneself  Integrated within ones sociocultural context (fits with one understanding of past and culture)  Revising the life story leads to change in identity over time. Whitbourne’s Identity Theory Argues that cognitive development influences people’s identities (how they form and are revised across adulthood). People build life-span construct to unify their sense of past , present, and future The life-span construct has two parts: – A scenario: where we want our life to go in the future – A life story personal narrative that organizes events with meaning Healthy adult identity development is based on finding equilibrium between identity and experience. Piaget’s concepts of: assimilation (using already existing aspects of identity to manage, too much leads rigidity) accommodation (change identity in response to situation, too much leads to self-doubt/learned helplessness) Identity assimilation higher in later life: allows OA to integrate age related changes into identity and maintain a positive sense of self. Six Foci Model of Adult Personality – Hooker and McAdams (2003; Hooker, 2015; McAdams, 2015) integrated the structures of personality (e.g., traits) and processes of personality within a levels-of-analysis framework. ▪ Three levels of personality: o Traits (individual) and states (intraindividual) o Personal action constructs (PACs) (what you want) and self-regulatory processes (what you do) o Life stories (providing meaning and purpose to life) and self-narrations (audience specific adjustments to life stories) Self-Concept and Well-Being Self-Concept and Well-Being – The organized, coherent, integrated pattern of self-perceptions that includes self-esteem and self-image Kegen ▪ Self-concepts across adulthood are related to the cognitivedevelopmental level. ▪ Proposes six stages of development which correspond to levels of cognitive development ▪ Emphasizes that self-concept and personality does not occur in a vacuum Gender Identify Gender Identity – How people see themselves and how others see them re: gender – Important aspect of self-concept, can be fluid – Socially constructed so sociocultural context matters, so does cohort (time grew up, as well as time they began to identify with as a member of LGBTQIA+ community(“coming of age”): – Intersectionality is important – Average age of gender identity disclosure to ppers is very late teens to early 20’s. Possible Selves  Possible selves ▪ Created by projecting yourself into the future and thinking about what you would like to become, and what you are afraid of becoming Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self  Possible Selves ▪ Age differences have been observed in both hoped-for and feared selves:  Young adults and middle-aged adults report family issues as most important.  Middle-aged and older adults report personal issues to be most important.  Young and middle-aged adults see themselves as improving in the future, while older adults do not. Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self  Spirituality and Identity ▪ Older adults use religion more often than any other strategy to help them with problems in life.  Mexican Americans who pray to the saints and the Virgin Mary have greater optimism and better health. ▪ Spiritual support provides a strong influence on identity.  Greater personal well-being (lower feelings of selfworth in older adults who have little religious commitment)  Supported by cross-cultural research with Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs Life Narratives, Identity, and the Self (10 of 11)  Krause and colleagues (2000) found turning problems over to God is a three-step process: – Differentiating between things that can (or can’t) be changed – Focusing one’s own efforts (what can be changed) – Emotionally disconnecting from those aspects of the problem that cannot be changed with the belief that God will provide the best outcome possible  This is especially true for African Americans, who are more involved in religious activities. – Other ethnic groups also gain important aspects of their identity from religion.  Neuroscience indicates there may be changes in brain activity associated with spiritual practices that help people cope. Conclusions about Narratives, Identity, and the Self  In order to fully understand a person, it is necessary to know how the person integrates his/her life into a coherent structure.  There is evidence for change throughout adulthood in these aspects of personality (narratives, identity, and self). ▪ We continue constructing identity throughout our adult lives… ▪ From this perspective, personality is a very complex construct that takes a lifetime to complete. Take Home Message  There is no simple answer as to whether personality changes or stays the same throughout adulthood.  It depends on how you conceptualize and measure personality. ▪ Traits, ▪ Personal Concerns ▪ Identity and Sense of Self All levels are necessary to comprehensively understand the complexity of personality change across the adulthood. In short, there is evidence for both change and stability in personality. WEEK 8 LECTUER SLIDES Developmental Aspects of Friendships Sibling Relationships Love Relationships Violence in Relationships Singlehood Marriage Divorce and Remarriage Widowhood Becoming a Grandparent Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents Friendships  Three broad themes underlie adult friendships ▪ Affective or emotional basis  This includes self-disclosure, expressions of intimacy, appreciation, affection, and support  Based on trust, loyalty, and commitment ▪ Shared or communal nature  Friends participate in or support activities of mutual interest ▪ Sociability and compatibility  Friends keep us entertained and are sources of amusement, fun, and recreation Online friendships – Trust develops on the basis of reputation, performance, precommitment, and situational factors Developmental Aspects of Friendships  Age differences in friendship ▪ Young adults tend to have more friends and acquaintances than any other age group ▪ Despite lower numbers of friends in later life….  Friendships in old age are especially important for maintaining life satisfaction ▪ Why?  Concerns about being a burden to their families— friendships foster independence ▪ Lower number of friends possibly due to socio-emotional selectivity  Social contact in later life is motivated emotional regulation, as opposed to info seeking in earlier adulthood  Consequently, older adults become increasingly selective about who they spend their time with Developmental Aspects of Friendships (cont.)  Gender differences in friendship ▪ Men tend to have fewer friendships than women ▪ Men’s same gender friendships tend to be based on shared activities and interests ▪ Women’s same gender friendships are based on intimate emotional sharing ▪ Cross-gender friendships tend to be very difficult to maintain, but are quite beneficial, especially for men Sibling Relationships  Five types of sibling relationships have been identified ▪ Intimate: high involvement, high contact, low resentment ▪ Congenial: high involvement, average contact, low resentment ▪ Loyal: average involvement, average contact, low resentment ▪ Apathetic: low involvement, low contact, low resentment ▪ Hostile: high involvement, low contact, high resentment  Loyal and congenial relationships describe nearly two-thirds of all older sibling pairs If hostile siblings in later life, often due to childhood rivalry  Sibling ties among sisters tend to be the strongest and most intimate  Sibling ties are the strongest in adolescence and late life.  We need more research in sibling relationships across life-span. Sibling Relationships (cont.) Sibling ties are the strongest in adolescence and late life. Figure 11.1 Strength of sibling ties across the lifespan. Source: Schmeeckle, M., Giarusso, R., & Wang, Q. (1998, November). When being a brother or sister is important to one’s identity: Life stage and gender differences. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Gerontological Society, Philadelphia. Love Relationships  Sternberg has identified three components of love ▪ Passion: physiological desire ▪ Intimacy: feel you can share things with other ▪ Commitment: stay with person through good and bad  Ideally, good love relationships have all three components Love Relationships (cont.)  How do people fall in love?  Assortive mating does the best job explaining the process of forming love relationships ▪ Selecting a mate works best when there are shared values, goals, and interests: SIMILARITY  Homogamy = the degree to which people are the same ▪ An increasing number of people are meeting online  Cross-cultural research demonstrates that mate selection is subject to powerful cultural norms Love Relationships ▪ Speed dating provides a way to meet several people in a short period of time ▪ The popularity of online dating is increasing ▪ Problems with accuracy of personal descriptions ▪ Hookup culture of casual sex indicates that three-fourths of both men and women regret having hookup sex ▪ Romantic attachment is the norm in 80% of cultures ▪ Resistant to change cultures emphasis loyalty to family and arranged marriages Violence in Relationships  Abusive relationships occur when one person becomes aggressive toward the partner ▪ Levels of aggressive behavior range from verbal aggression to physical aggression to murdering one’s partner  People remain in abusive relationships for many reasons ▪ Including low self-esteem and the belief that they cannot leave ▪ Battered spouse syndrome: The causes of aggression become more complex as the level of aggression increases  Culture is an important contextual factor ▪ Patriarchal, honor, chastity  Heterosexual men and members of the LGBTQ community experience lower rates of violence from intimate partners Violence in Relationships (cont.) Figure 11.2 Continuum of progressive behaviors in abusive relationships. From K. D. O’Leary, Through a psychological lens: Personality traits, personality disorders, and levels of violence, R. J. Gelles & D. R. Loseke (eds.), Current Controversies on Family Violence, pp. 7–30, copyright © 1993 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. Elder Abuse and Neglect (cont.)  1 in 10 older adults are victims of elder abuse  Elder abuse is difficult to define and has several categories ▪ Physical ▪ Psychological and emotional ▪ Sexual ▪ Material or financial ▪ Violation of rights ▪ Abandonment ▪ Neglect ▪ Self-neglect  Most perpetrators are adult children Singlehood  Most adults in their 20s are single ▪ Approximately 75% of men and 60% of women  Biases against singles  People remain single for a variety of reasons ▪ Preference ▪ Self-attributed status ▪ Economics Singlehood (cont.)  Gender differences ▪ Men tend to stay single longer  However, fewer men remain unmarried through out adulthood ▪ There are health and longevity consequences from single for men but not for women ▪ Women with higher levels of education are overrepresented among unmarried adults Lifestyles and Relationships (2 of 7)  Cohabitation: people in committed, sexual relationships who live together, becoming an increasingly popular lifestyle  Increasingly common alternative to marriage  4 in 10 cohabit due to financial reasons Gay Male and Lesbian Couples  Much less is known about gay and lesbian relationships compared to heterosexual relationships.  On many relationship dimensions gay male and lesbian couples are similar to married couples ▪ Including, finances and household chores  However, lesbian couples tend to be more egalitarian  May get less familial support than heterosexual couples  May face more societal challenges regarding equality  Being gay or lesbian and older, may make dealing with challenges of aging more difficult Marriage  The median age at first marriage is increasing and has done so over the last few decades  Marital success: an umbrella term referring to any marital outcomes  Marital quality: a subjective evaluation of the couple’s relationship  Marital adjustment: the degree spouses accommodate each other  Marital satisfaction: a global assessment of one’s marriage Marriage (cont.)  Factors influencing marital success ▪ Age of the two partners at the time of marriage ▪ Homogamy  Marriage based on similarity ▪ Feelings of equality  Exchange theory - each partner contributing something to the relationship that the other would be hard pressed to provide The Developmental Course of Marital Satisfaction  Childless couples tend to remain satisfied throughout their marriage  Couples with children show declines in marital satisfaction while the children are still living at home  May be impacted by the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model: ▪ Marital quality is a dynamic process resulting from the couple’s ability to handle stressful events  Helps to have couple work together to adapt to changes that will occur over the life-span. The Developmental Course of Marital Satisfaction  The early years – Early in a marriage, the couple must adjust to different perceptions and expectations – As couples settle in a routine, marital satisfaction tends to decline – Marital satisfaction tends to decline with the birth of a child Lifestyles and Relationships What are Long-Term Marriages Like?  Most long-term marriages tend to be happy  Couples in long-term happy marriages show an ability to adapt to changes in their relationships  Couples realize that expectations about one's marriage change over time, ▪ Eventually become more congruent with each other  Older couples’ partners express few negative emotions and more positive emotions than middle-aged couples Divorce  Who Gets Divorced and Why ▪ Divorce in the United States is common ▪ Asian Americans have the lowest rate of divorce ▪ African Americans have the highest rate of divorce ▪ Gottman and Levenson: predicting divorce ▪ Negative emotions displayed ▪ Lack of positive emotions displayed Divorce  Effects of Divorce on the Couple ▪ Divorce may impair well-being even several years later ▪ Divorce hangover: inability to “let go” ▪ Men have more short-term problems: blamed for divorce, move out, social disruption ▪ Women have more long-term problems: less likely to remarry, child custody, finances, possible occupational changes ▪ Divorce in middle age or late life If the woman initiates the divorce, they report selffocused growth and optimism If they did not, they tend to ruminate and feel vulnerable ▪ Middle-aged divorced women often face financial problems ▪ Difficulties between divorced partners usually involve visitation and child support Remarriage  Remarriage ▪ Despite adjustment problems, the vast majority of divorced people remarry  Few differences between first marriages and remarriages ▪ Second (or higher) marriages average about 10 years, compared to the 13-year average of first marriages. ▪ Biggest problem will likely be stepparenting.  Remarriage in late life appears to be very happy, especially if the partners were widowed ▪ In this case, the biggest problem is usually resistance by adult children Widowhood  Experiencing the death of one's spouse is a traumatic event, but one which is highly likely ▪ More than half of women over 65 are widows, but only 15% of same-aged men are widowers Widowhood (cont.)  Reactions to widowhood depend on the quality of the marriage  Widowed people are vulnerable to being abandoned by their couples-based friendship network ▪ As a result, they may become socially isolated  Gender differences ▪ Widowhood is more common among women because they tend to marry older men ▪ Widowed men are typically older than widowed women ▪ Men are more likely to die soon after their spouse  Either by suicide or natural causes Intergenerational Kinship Ties  Kinkeeper: the person who gathers family members together  Riley and Riley present three ways of conceptualizing kinship ties ▪ Simple - involving two generations ▪ Expanded - involving three generations ▪ Latent - involving in-laws and other relatives Types of Families  Nuclear family ▪ Consisting only of parents and children ▪ The most common form of family in Western societies  Extended family ▪ Consisting of grandparents and other relatives living with parents and children ▪ The most common form around the world is the extended family Becoming a Parent  Deciding to become a parent is complicated ▪ Finances are of great concern ▪ An increasing number of couples are child-free ▪ Couples in the United States have fewer children and have their first child later than in the past  Being older at the birth of the first child is advantageous Becoming a Parent (cont.)  In general, child-free couples report happier marriages, more freedom, and higher standard of living  The timing of parenthood is important in how involved parents are in their families ▪ Older mothers are more at ease, spend more time, and more attentive/sensitive to baby needs. ▪ Men who become fathers in their 30s spend much more time with their children than men who become fathers in their 20s In general, most parents deal with the challenges of childrearing reasonably well. Parenting  Diversity and Approaches to Parenting ▪ Black parents  Husbands are more likely to help with household chores  Provide a cohesive, loving environment within the context of a strong religious belief ▪ Native American parents  Traditional cultural parenting skills have been lost ▪ Latino American parents  Familism: well-being of family takes precedence over concerns of individual family members  Extended family is important ▪ Asian American parents  Value familism and extended family Parenting (cont.)  Single parents ▪ The rate of births to single mothers has been declining since 2008 ▪ Many unmarried mothers are in cohabiting relationships ▪ Face many struggles:  Reduced financial resources and social support are often difficult issues for single parents  Experience complex feelings such as frustration, failure, guilt, and a need to be overindulgent  Often a concern around dating Parenting (cont.)  Step-, Foster-, Adoptive,  Parenting ▪ There are few differences among parents who have their own biological children versus those who do not ▪ Allow children do develop relationships at their own pace ▪ Children adopted from another culture may need connection to culture of origin ▪ Foster parents have the most tenuous relationships Parenting (cont.)  Gay and lesbian parents ▪ These parents face numerous obstacles, but are usually very good parents with well-adjusted children ▪ Evidence is clear that children raised by gay or lesbian parents suffer no adverse consequences compared to heterosexual parents Launching Children: Empty Nest  Most parents do not report severe negative emotions when their children leave home ▪ Only 25% report negative emotions when their children leave home ▪ Difficulties emerge when children were a major source of a parent’s identity  Roughly half of young adults return home at least once (boomerang kids) ▪ Conflict with child over lifestyle, habit friends ▪ Little impact on parent’s marriage or marital satisfaction  Overall though, most middle-aged parents and adult children feel they have strong, positive relationships and can count on each other. Becoming a Grandparent  Neugarten and Weinstein identified five major styles of grandparenting ▪ Formal (most) ▪ Fun seeker (second most) ▪ Distant ▪ Surrogate parents ▪ Dispenser of family wisdom Becoming a Grandparent (cont.)  One third of grandparents are classified as formal with traditional roles ▪ Such as, occasional babysitting and occasionally indulging grandchild  A second common style is the fun seeker ▪ This relationship is characterized by informal playfulness Becoming a Grandparent (cont.)  Becoming a grandparent in meaningful ▪ Kivnick has identified five meanings of being a grandparent  Centrality  Value as an elder  Immortality through clan  Reinvolvement with one’s personal past  Indulgence  Relationships between grandparent and grandchildren are important because ▪ Grandparents pass on skills, religious, social, and vocational values ▪ Grandchildren help grandparents stay connected with youth Becoming a Grandparent (cont.)  Ethnic and racial differences: ▪ Intergenerational relationships are more important in some cultures than others, such as Black and Latino/a American ▪ Native American grandparents help connect grandchildren to cultural heritage Grandparents and Grandchildren  Grandparents raising their grandchildren ▪ Grandparents are increasingly being put in the position of raising their grandchildren ▪ Grandparents who raise their grandchildren face many special problems  More stress and more role disruption occurs ▪ Reasons for raising grandchildren are varied Great-Grandparenthood  Increasing numbers of people are living long enough to become great-grandparents ▪ Which brings additional status and meaning to one's life  Being a great-grandparent is an important source of personal and family renewal Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents  Middle-aged adults do not abandon their parents ▪ Most middle-aged adults typically maintain close and frequent contact with their parents  Often due to feelings of filial obligation ▪ Filial obligation: to care for one’s parents when necessary (cultural values show common challenges)  50 million Americans provide care for older parents, in-laws, and grandparents Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents (cont.)  However, caregiving for aging parents is highly stressful ▪ Most caregiving for the elderly is done by family members  Many of whom are daughters or daughter-in-laws ▪ Middle-aged adults also frequently experience difficulty in accepting their parents' problems and in adjusting to a caregiving role Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents (cont.) ▪ Two main sources of stress: ▪ Trouble coping with parents’ declines ▪ When the caregiving role infringes on the adult child’s other responsibilities ▪ The parents also lose independence  Sandwich generation ▪ Used to describe how middle-aged adults are squeezed by competing demands of children, who want to gain independence and their parents, who want to maintain independence Middle-Aged Adults and Their Aging Parents (cont.)  Caregiving places severe strain on the middle-aged adult's marital relationship, as spouses may resent the attention being paid the parent  Caring for a frail parent is also costly financially  Many aging parents do not like the fact that their children must care for them and have a desire to remain independent The Life Span Model of Family Care Exchanges (Part 1)  Family Caregiver ▪ Refers to someone who provides ongoing and unpaid care (e.g., assists with activities of daily living, medical tasks, emotional support) to an individual with a chronic illness or disability  Life Span Model ▪ Emphasizes “how care and support are both given and received throughout the life span as various family members are diagnosed with and adjust to the demands of managing chronic illness and disability” ▪ Proposes that there is a bidirectional flow between the caregiver and care receiver known as a care exchange  Some exchanges are more developmentally normative than others The Life Span Model of Family Care Exchanges (Part 2) Risk and Protective Factors for Family Care Exchanges  Risk Factors ▪ Feel untrained and unprepared to be a caregiver ▪ Feel burdened by the caregiver role ▪ Occupy more than one caregiver role (i.e., “sandwiched”) ▪ Began being a caregiver at a young age ▪ Have financial difficulties due to being a caregiver  Protective Factors ▪ Feel relief that the care recipient is receiving high-quality care ▪ Feel personal growth and a sense of accomplishment from navigating caregiving challenges Ecological Context of the Life Span Model of Family Care Exchanges  Cultural Context ▪ Perspectives ▪ Values ▪ Gender norms ▪ Age  Familial Relationships ▪ Level of family cohesion, warmth, and closeness ▪ Traditional family versus modern family ▪ Physical proximity  Individual Characteristics ▪ Caregiver’s psychosocial resources (e.g., mental health, self- efficacy, and personality traits) ▪ Care receiver’s characteristics (e.g., the nature of their illness or disability and their willingness to receive care) WEEK 9 LECTURE SLIDES The Changing Nature of Work Occupational Development, including theories of Super, Holland Job Satisfaction, including relationship with age Bias and Discrimination Juggling Multiple Roles What Does Being Retired Mean? Adjusting to Retirement The Meaning of Work Specific occupation doesn’t affect workers’ need to derive meaning from their work Although most people work for money, other reasons are highly variable They include, prestige, recognition, and a sense of worth Occupational priorities (what people want out of their jobs) changes over time Four meanings that describe work: Developing self, union with others, expressing self, and serving others. The Meaning of Work (cont.) In the longitudinal AT&T study, changes in workers' priorities have been documented over time. For high level management, the longer time a person had been on the job, the higher they rate the importance of work in life (i.e. expect work to be a rewarding life experience). For lower-level management, the longer time a person has been on the job, the lower they rate the importance of work in life. Thus, complex interaction between the importance of work, type of work, and length of time on the job. The Meaning of Work (cont.) Figure 12.1 Changes in the relative importance of work at different levels of management in the AT&T study Source: Howard, A., & Bray, D. W. (1980, August). Career motivation in mid-life managers. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Montreal. The Changing Nature of Work Global competition for work has resulted in changes in the number and types of jobs available to workers in the United States For example, between 1987 and 1994 there were more than 7 million permanent layoffs in the U.S. These layoffs were not caused by companies losing money, but by Changes in competition Relocation of operations Mergers and acquisitions Infusion of new technology Plant becoming obselete Because of this changing nature of work Managers and workers must adopt different leadership and work styles: Bring out the best in employees Workers need to assume more autonomy There is also an increased need to stay current with the latest technology and newest skills BE FLEXIBLE TO ADAPT TO CHANGING NATURE OF WORK Imposter Syndrome + Career Change Feeling like a fraud, as though your successes aren’t your own – despite evidence to the contrary. High achievers Societal norms and expectations Feeling as though you “should” know leads to fear of asking questions. Age can impact this Late career change Young company leaders (Duverge, 2021; Slank, 2019) Imposter Syndrome + Career Change Imposter cycle (Sakulku & Alexander, 2011; Slank, 2019) Changes in the Work Force As the nature of work has changed, so has the work force The median age of the work force has increased steadily It is expected to reach 40 years by 2010 The “graying of the work force” is becoming more common. There are fewer instances of mandatory retirement at 55 and over Initial Occupational Choice Theories Career Construction Theory People build their careers through their own actions that result from the interface of their own personal characteristics and the social context. Social Cognitive Career Theory Career choice is the result of the application of Bandura’s social cognitive theory, especially self-efficacy Holland’s Personality-Type Theory Individuals choose occupations to optimize person-occupation fit Holland’s Theory Occupational Choice Making occupational choices is a significant life decision. Holland’s theory is focused on the idea that people choose occupations that optimize the fit between: their individual personality traits and their occupational interests Six personality types that represent different combinations have identified Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Conventional Enterprising Holland’s Theory Occupational Choice (cont.) Importance of Occupational Choice Theories Occupational Choice theories are increasingly used as frameworks for career counselors and life coaches to help people identify and select initial occupations and later navigate occupational challenges. Employability skills mapping Help people to identify job skills that are in demand with the skills they have and can demonstrate, but also how to acquire them if there are gaps. Occupational Development: Super’s Theory Occupational Development describes how we develop along a career path. Super describes five stages we progress through in adulthood, based on selfconcept and adaptation to an occupational role Implementation: early 20’s try out career choices and jobs Establishment: young adulthood, get initially established in job Maintenance: middle age, “settled in”, maximize effectiveness Deceleration: later middle age, plan for retirement, start to separate from work Retirement: later life, stop working full-time The more congruent a person’s occupational behaviors are with what is expected of them at different ages, the more vocationally mature they are Occupational Expectations People have expectations about what they want to become occupationally, when they hope to get there, and what it will be like Expectations change as the result of Realizing that one’s interests have changed or the occupational “dream” was not a good fit But also due to other factors such as age, race, or sexual discrimination, lack of opportunity, and obsolescence of skills Reality Shock The realization that one’s expectations about an occupation are different from the reality one experiences Reality shock is common among young workers This happens most to young adults and people with little relevant experience prior to assuming a new job The outcome of reality shock is often a revision of personal priorities in life. “lose the dream”, refine it, develop more realitybased expectations. Coping in the Workplace: The Role of Mentors and Coaches A mentor is a co-worker who teaches a new employee the unwritten rules ands fosters occupational development A developmental coach is an individual who helps a person focus on their goals, motivations, and aspirations to help them achieve focus and apply themselves appropriately. Coping in the Workplace: The Role of Mentors and Coaches (cont.) Mentor-protégé relationships develop over time, through stages, like other relationships Occupational success often depends on the quality of the mentor-protégé relationship Mentors helping younger employees learn the job is one way to achieve generativity Women and those from historically marginalized groups have an especially high need for both mentors and coaches The quality of the mentor really matters Speed mentoring is a new twist on selecting mentor/mentee relationships The Role of Mentors in the Workplace (cont.) Kram suggests that a four-stage sequence occurs in mentor-protégé relationships Initiation: Cultivation: Separation: Redefinition Job Satisfaction The positive feelings that results from an appraisal of one’s work Job satisfactions tends to increase with age Older workers report higher job satisfaction than younger workers This may be partly because of self-selection Unhappy workers may quit Other reasons include intrinsic satisfaction, good fit, realistic expectations about work, finding non-work diversions, and life-cycle factors Alienation Alienation and Burnout Feeling that what one is doing is meaningless or cannot see the connection between what they do and the final product. Burnout Too much stress in one’s occupation and can lead to Loss of energy and motivation Loss of occupational idealism Feeling that one is being exploited Especially common among workers who work long hours, under time pressure, and deal with complex issues. Increases with age and years on job. Burnout negatively affects the quality of the services people are supposed to receive The Impact of Burnout Several affects on the brain Less ability to regulate negative emotions resulting from weakened connections between the amygdala, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the prefrontal cortex. Poorer judgement and emotional outbursts. Gender Differences in Occupational Choice Currently, 63% of women work outside of the home with this number is on the rise Many women have difficulty finding occupations that match their level of skill Historically, women have entered traditionally female-dominated occupations. Increasingly, more women are pursuing nontraditional occupations (male-dominated). Women in nontraditional occupations are viewed more poorly by both men and women Thus, gender related stereotypes are still present. Women and Occupational Development Betz (1984) found that 10 years after college graduation Only 1% of women had been full-time homemakers While 79% reported having successfully combined work and family. Women and Occupational Development (cont.) Women who leave well-paid occupations do so for many reasons, including Family obligations – most important for women working part-time Workplace issues – most important for women working full-time Makes it difficult to maintain upwardly mobile career trajectory Organizations reward masculine values of working Women feel disconnected from the workplace Women who continue to work full-time Have adequate childcare Look for ways to further their occupational development Nontraditional Occupations African American and European American women do not differ in plans to enter nontraditional occupations But African American women plan for more education Vocational identity The degree to which one view one’s occupation as a key element of identity African-American and European American men have higher vocational identity when they graduate from college, compared to Hispanic men Vocational aspirations Hispanics have high occupational aspirations, but low expectations Ethnicity and Occupational Development Bias and Discrim ination Sex discrimination Denying a job to someone solely on the basis of whether the person is a man or a women Sex discrimination is a major issue, in terms of getting jobs, promotions, and pay Bias and Discrim ination (cont.) Women in high level jobs still somewhat unusual. Linked to imposter syndrome One factor is the glass ceiling The level to which women may rise in a company, but not advance further This is a barrier to promotion that women and ethnic minorities often experience Another factor is the glass elevator In traditionally female occupations men may rise much faster than female counterparts Also important to note the glass cliff: A woman is put in a leadership position because an organization is in a precarious situation. Duverge, 2021 Bias and Discrim ination: Pay Inequity Women get paid a fraction of what men with similar jobs earn, even worse for women of color A possible solution is Comparable Worth Equalizing pay in occupations that are determined to be equivalent in importance, but differ in the gender distribution of the people doing the jobs Bias and Discrimination: Pay Inequity (cont.) Figure 12.2 The wage gap for weekly earnings between women and men. Source: Castro, I. L. (1997). Worth more than we earn: Fair pay as a step toward gender equity. National Forum, 77(2), 17–21. Sexual Harassment The reasonable woman (person) standard is used to decide whether an act constitutes harassment If a reasonable women would view a behavior as offensive, then it is offensive even if the man did not conceive it as so Victims are most often single or divorced women less than thirty-five years of age. Many negative consequences: Psychological, job performance, morale, productivity Age Discrimination Making employment decisions only on the basis of age or denying employment or promotion if the worker is over age 40 Age discrimination occurs in many ways, such as differential layoff patterns and stereotypical views of older workers Winning an age discrimination suit is difficult Companies report general differences between old and young, rather than in specific terms of whether older and younger workers actually differ in job performance. Occupational Transitions In past, people typically chose an occupation and stayed with it for most of life. More recently, the average person changes jobs multiple times during life. Factors influencing occupational change include Dislike Which results in quitting or seeking other employment Worker obsolescence For example, technological developments that eliminate jobs Economic factors which result in layoffs or downsizing For example, recessions Retraining Workers Rapid changes in the nature of work have resulted in the displacement of older workers According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census 51.4% of workers 55 to 64 years old do not find new employment Whereas 65 to 70% of workers under 35 do find new employment Thus, easier to find new employment if you are younger. Also, it is important, especially for older workers, to adapt to changing nature of work by keeping current and modifying job skills Retraining Workers (cont.) Older adults may also be at greater risk for career plateauing When there is a lack of promotional opportunity in an organization, or a person chooses not to seek advancement Again, learning new skills is essential to maximize one’s opportunities To adapt to the effects of the global economy and an aging work force, many corporations provide retraining opportunities for workers Companies may have to make special efforts to help older workers increase confidence in learning new skills. Occupational Insecurity and Job Loss Occupational insecurity is a growing problem Fear that one may lose one’s job is a better predictor of anxiety than the actual likelihood of job loss. Expanded during the COVID-19 Pandemic. People who believe their job is in jeopardy— even if it is not—show levels of stress similar to individuals who are unemployed. Job loss Perception of loss and the role the job played in defining their identity plays a big role in determining what long-term effects will be. Occupational Insecurity and Job Loss (cont.) Unemployment rates for many marginalized groups are substantially higher than for White employees. Losing one's job can have serious negative effects on every aspect of a person’s life Declines may result in mental health problems, including Low self-esteem Depression Anxiety Suicide These effects are also related to the degree of financial stress one is under, and the timing of the job loss Effects of job loss vary with age, gender, and education How long a person is unemployed affects their reaction. Dual-Earner Couples Nearly 2/3 of two-parent households, both adults work outside the home Nearly 1/2 of unmarried mothers and 56% of married mothers with children under the age of 1 are currently in the work force These numbers are increasing Dual-Earner Couples (cont.) Figure 12.3 Mothers in the work force. Source: U.S. Department of Labor. (1997). Current population survey Washington, DC: Author. Dual-Earner Couples (cont.) Whether a women returns to work after having a child depends largely on financial resources and how attached she is to her work If she does return to work, this can lead to interrole conflict Conflicts between work and family responsibilities Dual-Earner Couples (cont.) Factors related to reduced role conflict: Flexible work schedules Supportive partner Supervisor understanding of role conflict Women feel in control on job and of schedule Child care availability Dual-Earner Couples: Juggling Multiple Roles Dividing household chores The amount of time spent doing household chores has been reduced over the past two decade While, men have increased the amount of time they spend on household tasks, women still do most of the work Can create arguments Dual-Earner Couples: Juggling Multiple Roles (cont.) Husbands and wives view the division of labor in very different terms Men view equal division in number of hours spent Women are most satisfied when men perform traditional women’s chores Ethnic differences are also apparent European American men are less likely than either African American or Hispanic American men to help with traditionally female household tasks Dual-Earner Couples: Juggling Multiple Roles (cont.) The feeling of being pulled in multiple directions by incompatible demands from both one’s job and one’s family can occur. Women across many cultures are more likely to be affected Thus… Dual earners couples must find a balance between their occupational and family roles. Flexible schedules are really helpful for finding workfamily balance Couples need to ensure to make time for each other Dependent Care The Dependent Care Dilemma – Employed caregivers Whether a women returns to work after having a child depends on financial need and how attached she is to her work. Stepping out of their occupations negatively affects their career paths, even for short leaves. Many workers must also care for a parent or partner. Dependent Care (cont.) Dependent Care – Being responsible for dependent care has significant negative effects on caregivers. – Less distress occurs if a women has good support from their partners and average or high control over their jobs. – Backup Care: emergency care for dependent children or adults so the employee does not need to lose a day of work when the usual care is unavailable. Leisure Activities Four categories are usually used to help organize leisure activities Cultural Physical Social Solitary Leisure activities can also be considered in terms of the degree of cognitive, emotional, or physical involvement Leisure Activiti es (cont.) People develop a repertoire of preferred leisure activities Each activity has a different meaning and importance to every individual The activities are determined by perceived competence and psychological comfort Perceived competence - how good we think we are at the activity compared to others Psychological comfort - how well we meet our personal goals for performance Developmental Changes in Leisure Longitudinal research shows that leisure preferences in adulthood reflect those in earlier life However, as people grow older they tend to engage in leisure activities that are less strenuous and more family-oriented Consequences of Leisure Activities Leisure activities promote well-being and can enhance all aspects of people’s lives Importantly, it is the amount of satisfaction you derive from your leisure activities not your level of participation Quality rather than quantity of leisure activities Retirement Retirement is largely a development of the 20th century, and is still an evolving concept What does being retired mean? Complex process The way in which people withdraw to some degree from full-time employment Retirement (cont.) Changing conceptions of work are resulting in changing conceptions of retirement Retirement can be crisp or blurred Crisp - making a clean break from employment by stopping work entirely Blurred - repeatedly leaving and returning to work, with some periods of unemployment Why Do People Retire? Most people retire because they choose to Although some people are forced to retire Feeling that retirement is a choice is associated with better adjustment Major Predi ctors of Retirement: Health, Gender, and Ethnicity Poor Health A main reason people retire early Gender differences A woman is most likely to retire if her husbands has poor health or had more dependants. Opposite for men Ethnic differences African Americans tend to label themselves as retired or not retired based on subjective disability, work history, and source of income rather than on whether they are currently employed Planning for Retirement Financial planning and realistic expectations toward retirement are important predictors of future satisfaction People who plan for retirement tend to be more successful in adapting to this major life change Preretirement education programs cover a variety of topics, including finances, attitudes, health, and expectations Planning for Retirement (cont.) Adjustment to Retirement Retirement is an important life transition and can be stressful However, the degree of stress is related to attitudes toward retirement and whether retirement is voluntary New patterns of personal involvement must be developed in the context of changing roles and lifestyles in retirement. Most people are satisfied with their retirement, as long as people Have financial security Have their health Have a supportive network of relatives and friends Adjustment to Retirement (cont.) High satisfaction in early retirement includes For men Being in good health Having enough income Having retired voluntarily Having more emphasis on family roles For women No one role was associated with satisfaction For both men and women high personal competence was associated with higher retirement satisfaction over the long run MYTHS Health declines immediately following retirement Retirement leads to a reduction in friendships Retirement leads to loss of activity Interpersonal Ties All aspects of a person's life and interpersonal relationships are affected by retirement Marital relationships May undergo considerable stress until new role definitions are reached Readjusting to being home rather than at work is difficult for men in traditional marriages Most couples resolve these stresses Married men generally happier during retirement than those who are not Interpersonal Ties Friendships can further buffer stresses of retirement Friendships remain as frequent and good during retirement Community Ties Retirees often get involved in community activities Benefits: role of meaningful contributor, help others, socialize Work in Later Life and Volunteering Employment and Volunteering – Working in late life For many people, “retirement” involves working at least part-time. Older workers face many challenges, including ageism and discrimination. The relationship between age and job performance is extremely complex. – Volunteering Healthy, active retired adults maintain community ties by volunteering. They also experience personal development, a sense of purpose, and the chance to share their skills. Article: “Retirement Security: It’s Not Just About The Money” (James et al., 2016) Retirement security refers to one’s level of comfort with the extent to which a pre-retirement standard of living can be maintained. However, retirement security isn’t just about being able to maintain pre-retirement standard of living, it’s also about continuing to be an active member of the community (”psychological security”) By not encouraging psychological security, alongside financial security, individuals may be at risk for a lack of self-efficacy or lower life satisfaction. Article: “Retirement Security: It’s Not Just About The Money” (James et al., 2016) ”The Third Age” Individuals in retirement are living longer than ever Health status of individuals in retirement is generally better than those previously. This is a time where older adults have new opportunities for self- realization and fulfillment. Fear of ”the Third Age” could explain why individuals are choosing not to retire Barriers to Psychological Security Ageism and outdated social structures Poor employment quality Poor working conditions Changes in the use of technology Article: “Retirement Security: It’s Not Just About The Money” (James et al., 2016) Ways Psychologists Can Help: Promote continued participation in individual and community activities Provide screening and assessment to determine needs for individuals in retirement Offer paid employment Offer education opportunities Create volunteer and service work opportunities Help with caregiving through ”informal helping” Week 10 Lecture Slides Dealing with One's Own Death The Hospice Option A Life-Span View of Loss Through Death Stages of Grief Reactions to Grief and Grief Duration Definition of Death and Dying.. Simply Put Deat h: is the transition b et we e n be ing a l ive a n d b e i ng d e a d , Dying: is the process of mak ing the transition Sociocultural Definitions of Death Sociocultural defi nitions of death vary greatly a rou nd the worl d All cultures have their own views. Mourning rituals and states of bereavement also var y in diff erent cultures. Death can be a truly cross-cultural exper ience, s u ch as w h e n m aj o r t r age d i es o c cu r. Legal and Medical Definitions of Death Clinical death: Lack of heartbeat and respiration W h o le -brain death is most widely accepted today. o T h e p e r s o n is in a c o m a a n d t he ca u s e of t he c o m a k nown. o All brainstem refl exes have per manently stopped working. o B reat h ing h a s p e r m a n e n t ly stop ped. So m ew h at diff erent criteria for deter mining brain deat h are applied at diff erent hospitals. Brain death is controversial from some religious perspectives. Persistent vegetative state occurs w h en cortical f unctioning ceases, t h o ug h brainstem f unct ioning continues. Ethical Issues Bioethics Examines the interaction between hu ma n va l u e s a n d t e ch n o l og i c a l a d va n c e s The most important bioethical issue is e u t h a n a s i a. o T h e practice of ending life for reasons of m e rcy Two types of euthanasia Active euthanasia Deliberately ending someone’ s life through s o m e o sort of intervention or action Passive euthanasia o E n d ing s o m e o n e’ s life by wit hholding treatment The Price of Life-Sustaining Care A g row i ng d ebate c o n c e r n s t he costs for ke e p i ng s o m e o n e alive t h ro ug h t e chn ol og y a n d includes fi nancial, personal, a n d m oral costs Financial costs are usually staggering Pe rs ona l e mot i ona l costs are of ten unde rest imated, b u t c a n b e d eva st at i ng a n d l o ng -last ing Physician-Assisted Suicide Anot her huge bioethical issue Provides for people to obtain prescriptions for self-administered lethal doses of medication All owed in several countries a nd several states, (including Oregon, California, Washington, Colorado, DC , Hawaii, Maine, New Jersey, N ew Mexico, and Ver mont) Thinking About Death: Personal Aspects A Life Course Approach to Feelings about Dying: Yo u n g ad u lt s r ep o r t a s e n s e o f b e i ng ch e a t e d by d e a t h M i d d l e -a ge d adults : Begin to confront their own mortality Un d e rgo a ch a nge in their sense of t ime lived a n d tim e unt il d e a t h ( m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y c h a nge i n relationships or occupation) W h e n their parents die, people realize t hey are the oldest ge n e r a t i o n. O l d e r a d u l t s a r e m o r e a c c e p t i ng o f d e a t h - Consistent with Ego Integrity Thinking About Death: Personal Aspects  Dealing with One’s O w n Death:  Kübler-Ross’s Theory: 5 Stages in Dealing with On e’s O w n D eat h (t hough later also applied to grief ex p e r i e n c e d by l ove d o n es)  Denial  Anger  Bargaining  Depression  Accept ance o T h e s e st ages c a n ove rl a p a n d b e ex p e r i e n c e d i n a diff erent o rde r. o Individual diff erences are great  So m e people:  d o not prog ress t hro ugh all t hese stages,  m ove t hrough t h e m at diff erent rates Think ing About Death: Personal Aspects  A contextual theory of dying  Emphasizes the tasks and issues that a dying person must f a c e  A contextual theory would be able to incor porate d iff ere nces in re a s o n s p e o p l e d i e a n d t he p la ces that p e o p l e d i e  Corr identifi ed four dimension of tasks that must be f a c e d  Bodily needs, psychological security, interpersonal at t a ch m e n t s , a n d spir it ual e n e r g y a n d h o p e Think ing About Death: Personal Aspects  A Contextual Theory of Dying  Emphasizes the tasks and issues that a dying p er s o n m u s t fa c e  Cor r identifi ed four dimensions of tasks that must b e faced  Bodily needs, psychological security, inter personal at t achments, a n d spir itual energy and hope  Emphasizes individual diff erences  Highlights importance of coping eff orts of individual a nd me m b er s of support system  A contextual theor y would be able to incor porate d iff erenc es i n r e a s o n s p e o p l e d ie a n d t h e p l a c es t h at p e o p l e d i e Think ing About Death: Personal Aspects  Death Anxiety  D e at h anxiety: people’s anxiety or fear of death a n d d y i ng  Terror manageme nt theory: addresses why people e nga ge i n cer t ain b eh av i o r s to a ch i eve par t icular p sycho l og i ca l states b a s e d o n their d e e p ly ro ot e d concer ns a b out mor tality  Neuroimaging research suppor ts the use of this t heor y in underst anding deat h anxiety.  D eat h anxiet y consists of several c o mp o n e n t s that c a n b e a c c e s s e d at t h e p u b l i c , p r ivat e, a n d nonconscious levels.  D e at h a nxi et y m a y h ave a benefi cial side,  Helps keep one alive. Think ing About Death: Personal Aspects  Several ways to deal wit h deat h anxiety exist Living life to the fullest  Personal Refl ection/Exercises to i n c re a s e o n e’s d e a t h awa re n e s s.  Death Education is increasingly popular to re d u c e a n x i et y End-of-Life Issues End-of-life issues  Managing the fi nal aspects of life  After-death disposition of the b o dy and h ow one is memor ialized  Distribution of assets  A fi nal scenario: M a k i ng choices about wh at p e o p l e d o a n d d o n o t w a n t d o n e , i m p a c t e d by ea ch individual’s devel opm e n t a l forces  A cr ucial aspect of the fi nal scenar io is the process of separation from family and friends.  Bringing closure to relationships  Constructed jointly, if possible  Healt h care providers c a n help via go o d co m m u n icat io n wit h family/patient End-of-Life Issues:  W h a t is the diff erence b et ween palliative c a r e a n d h o s p i c e?  Palliative Care  A n a p p r o a c h to c a re b a s e d o n a n et h ic o f controlling and relieving pain or other symptoms a nd not o n at tempting to cure disease, indiv i dual does not need to be dying  Hospice  A n approach to assisting dy ing people that emphasizes pai n m a n a ge m e n t (palliative care) and death with dignity End-of-Life Issues: The Hospice Option  Hospice care emphasizes quality of life rather than quantity of life  T h e goal is a d e -e mp h a s i s o n t he p rolongat io n of deat h for terminally ill patients  Hospice emphasizes maintaining the individual’s dignity  Bot h inpatient and outpatient (seen where they live/are) hospices exist  Increasingly, hospice support includes the option for “death d o u l a s ,” w h o h el p e a s e t h e p a s s a ge t h r o ug h d e a t h End-of-Life Issues: The Hospice O pt ion  H o sp i c e patients h ave better psychological status t han hospit al patients  more mobile,  less anxious, and  less depressed  Further, family m e m be rs tend to stay more involved in the care of hospice patients  H o sp i c e staff m e m b e r s are perce ived a s m o r e a c c e s s i b l e End-of-Life Issues: The Hospice  Hospice provides an impor tant end-of-life option for ma ny terminally ill people and their families  Moreover, the supportive follow-up services they provide are used by m a ny surviving family and friends End-of-Life Issues: How Do People Decide To Explore The Hospice Opt ion?  Considerations  Is t he p erso n co mp let ely i n fo r m e d a b o u t t he nat ure and prognosis of his or her condition?  W h a t options are available at this point in the progress of the person’s disease?  W h a t are t he p erson’s expect ations, fears, a n d h o p e s ?  H ow well d o the people in the person’s social n e t wo r k c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h e a ch ot h er?  A r e family m e m b e r s available to par ticipate actively in ter minal care?  Is a h ig h -quality h osp ic e care p r og r a m available?  Is h osp ic e cove re d by ins ura nce? End-of-Life Issues: The Hospice Option BARRIERS to HOSPICE BENEFITS  Family reluctance  to face the reality of terminal illness and  to par ticipate in the decision-m a k i ng process is c h a n g e d  Physician reluctance  to a pp rove hospice care for patients until the ve r y e n d is c h a nge d End-of-Life Issues: Making One’s Wishes Known-Advan ce Directives  Living will and durable power of attorney  Living will: A person simply states his or her wishes about life support and ot her t reat ments  Durable power of attorney: A n individual appoints someone to act as his or h er agen t for healt h care decisions  T he pur pose of both is to m a ke one’s wishes about end of life issues k n ow n in the event one is unconscious or other wise incapable of expressing t h e m  Impor tant as person ma k i ng decisions for som e on e m ay not k n ow their wishes  These can also serve as the basis for Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) m e d i ca l o rd e r  Both are consistent w/ Patient Self-Determination Act  Requires health care facilities receiving Medicare m o n ey to infor m patients abo ut their r ight to prepare a dva n c e directives stating their preferences fo r ter minal care End-of-Life Issues: Making One’s Wishes Known--Advance Directives  Pat ient self-deter minat ion a n d c o m p e t e n cy eva l u at i on  Health care facilities must provide information in writing about patients’ rights.  Two t ypes of deter mination about whet her a p e rso n c a n m a k e decisions:  Capacit y to m a ke decisions (clinical)  C o m p e t e n cy (legal)  Sur rogate decision-makers are often w ro ng a b o u t w h a t patients really wa n t. Survivor’s: The Grieving Process B ereavem ent , Gr ief, a n d Mourning  Bereavement is the state or condition caused by loss through death  Grief  The sorrow, hurt, anger, guilt, confusion, or other feelings that arise after a loss  Mour ning  The way we express or grief  Mourning is heavily infl uenced by cultural norms Survivors: The Grieving Process  Grief Process is an active coping process in which person must:  Ack n owledge the reality of the loss  WO R K through the emotional turmoil  Adj u st to t h e e nv i r o n m e n t w h e r e t h e d e c e a s e d is a bs en t  L o o s e n ties to t h e d e c e a s e d  H ow these are accomplished is an individual matter  Am ou nt of time to deal w/ death is highly individualized a n d s h o u l d n ot b e u n d e re st i m a t e d Survivors: The Grieving Process Risk factors in grief ▪ Sudden death versus prolonged death – Anticipatory grief o People tend to disengage from the dying person. – Strength of at