LIB 101 Module 1.pdf

MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF DATA AND INFORMATION Overview In this unit, we shall discuss the concept of data and information. We shall attempt to define data and information, show the relationship between data and information, information and other concepts such as knowledge and communication. We shal...

MODULE 1: THE CONCEPT OF DATA AND INFORMATION Overview In this unit, we shall discuss the concept of data and information. We shall attempt to define data and information, show the relationship between data and information, information and other concepts such as knowledge and communication. We shall also highlight the qualities of information and describe the various sources of information and the use of information. Learning Objectives At the end of this Unit, students should be able to:  Define information literacy  Define information and related concepts  Highlight the qualities of information  Explain the characteristics of information  Identify the various sources of information  Outline types of information Topics  Definition of information and related concepts  Qualities of information  Characteristics of information  Sources of Information  Types of information INTRODUCTION TO LIBRARY AND INFORMATION LITERACY Literacy is the ability to read and write. But, this is a general definition. Examples of other literacies are computer literacy, IT literacy, information literacy, tools literacy, information resource literacy, among others. In this course, we shall focus on information literacy. Definitions of Information literacy 1. Gilster, (1997): information literacy is “the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computer/electronic networks”. 2. Hinchliffe and Woodard (2001) and Elsenberg, Lowe and Spitzer (2004): information literacy is “the ability to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information” 3. Ojedokun (2007): information literacy is “an intellectual framework for identifying, finding, understanding, evaluating and using information as a prerequisite for lifelong learning, a basic requirement for the information society”. Information literacy is different from the general literacy (the ability to read and write}. It encompasses other literacies such as: tools literacy, information resource literacy, social-structural literacy, research literacy, publishing literacy, the emerging technology literacy and critical thinking literacy. 1 Rationale for Information Literacy Skills (ILS) Training According to the Association of Research and College Libraries (2000), Information literacy  forms the basis of lifelong learning.  is common to all disciplines, to all learning environments, and to all levels of education.  enables learners to master content and extend their investigations, become self-directed, and to assume greater control over their own learning. CONCEPTS OF DATA AND INFORMATION What is data?  Raw facts, figures, symbols etc. that require processing in order to become meaningful.  Recorded symbols (Hayes, 1992).  Representation of raw facts that must be processed. Data in its original form does not convey any meaning. Anything from printed characters to spoken words represents data. What is information?  “statement of facts, figures, ideas and creative works of the human intellect, which are logically or by way of reasoning interrelated, and have been communicated, recorded, published, and/or distributed formally or informally in any format” Ojedokun (2007).  processed data that aids in decision-making.  the bye-product of the transformation process carried out on data. When data is processed, information results as output. The relationship between data and information can be schematically represented as follows: DATA PROCESS INFORMATION 2,2 2X2 4 Fig. 1: Relationship between Data And Information 2,2 (data) does not convey any meaning initially but when it is processed (multiplied), it generates an output of 4. It then becomes meaningful. Emerging Concepts of Data, Knowledge and Communication and their relationship with Information Data appears raw and meaningless. But, when this raw, meaning recorded symbol is processed, it becomes information. Thus, the definition of information as processed data. It can, therefore be concluded that information evolved out of data and without data there cannot be information. Knowledge is defined as a person’s range of information meaning that the person’s range of information will determine his/her knowledge rating. This analysis simply shows that knowledge is built on information. The more information one has, the more knowledgeable he becomes. 2 Communication is an interactive process involving the exchange of information. Communication is said to have taken place when information had been exchanged. Thus, it can be seen that information arises out of communication. Information is the product of communication and you communicate only what you know. Information has no value except it is communicated. Communication is the platform through which information travels. Thus, communication is the process where information is the product. Process and product cannot be separated. This relationship can be illustrated as follows: DATA INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE COMMUNICATION Fig.2: Relationship Between Information And Related Concepts When data is processed, we get information, when information is further subjected to processing, we get knowledge as bye-product and finally when knowledge is processed, we talk about communicating the knowledge being acquired and this results in area of competence. From the foregoing, information:  is connected to knowledge and communication  consists of spoken words, written communication, sheets of music, photographs, paintings and scientific formulae.  must have a context from which we can understand it.  must have a meaning.  comes from many sources.  can be discovered and created (research) QUALITIES OF INFORMATION From the various definitions of information considered, the following qualities summed up with the acronym CART emerged: Current Accurate Relevant Timely CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION HOW WILL YOU CHARACTERIZE INFORMATION? In this section, we shall discuss four characteristics of information. Information can be characterized as either Factual, Analytical, Subjective or Objective (FASO). Factual Information  Information that is a fact and does not require you to give further explanation or n-depth background on a topic  Facts that are usually given as short non-explanatory answers.  Information that provides no explanation of its statements.  Factual questions often require only a short non-explanatory answers from a friend or a quick look-up in a factual source, such as Encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, almanacs, statistical sources. 3 Analytical Information  Interpretation of factual information.  Embodies interpretation, analysis, criticisms.  The type of information that researchers generate in their studies  Examples: Statistical digests, political commentaries, academic and scholarly books, scholarly journals, dissertation/theses, library databases Subjective Information  Information that represents only one opinion or viewpoint on a topic.  Can be based on fact, but presents information from an individual’s point of view.  Opinion and personal viewpoints.  Examples: book reviews, Newspapers (mostly editorial columns) Advocacy web sites, blogs, social media, non-scholarly books and journals. Objective Information  Represents observable findings  Unbiased information that represents multiple points of view.  Presents all sides of an argument.  Is a non-judgmental, but balanced and neutral reporting.  Examples: Books, journal articles, library databases, opposing viewpoints and Facts on File. SOURCES OF INFORMATION These are the various means by which information is recorded for use and by which a people are informed about something, or knowledge is availed people. These sources can be observations, people, speeches, documents, pictures, organizations appearing in print, non-print and electronic media?format. There are three ways by which information sources can be categorized, based on its originality and proximity to the source of origin. These are Primary, Secondary and Tertiary sources (Ojedokun, 2007). Primary Information  Original materials on which other research is based.  Fundamental, authoritative documents relating to a subject, and are used in preparation of a later work.  Usually the first formal appearance of research reports/results in the print or electronic literature.  Not translated by anyone else and have not been published elsewhere  Present information in its original form, neither interpreted, condensed nor evaluated by other writers.  Much of its value as a source derives from the fact that it is a first appearance of an information. 4   Examples: first report of scientific work (students’ projects or theses), an original artwork, a handwritten manuscript, a newspaper account of an event written by a reporter on the scene, treatise, autobiographies, correspondence, diaries, interviews, Photographs, research journals etc. Secondary Information  Repackaged primary sources.  Represent someone else's thinking.  Describe, interpret, analyze and evaluate the primary sources.  Comment on and discuss the evidence provided by primary sources.  Lead/point users to primary information.  Examples: bibliographies that cite primary works, Reviews, Encyclopedias, Yearbooks, Directories, Manuals, Handbooks and some books (which are not the first publication in that particular subject). Tertiary Information  A distillation, compilation and collection of primary and secondary sources.  Summarize or simply repackage ideas or other information.  Have no information content in themselves, but provide enough information to locate the required primary or secondary information  Lead/point users to primary and secondary information.  Examples are Abstracts, Indexes, Bibliographies, Library catalogue, Literature guides, Current awareness journals, etc. TYPES OF INFORMATION Information types are characterized based on the manner of presentation (Ojedokun, 2007). Although some of these have been mentioned in the course of this lecture, it is important to fully explain them. These are: oral, textual, numeric, bibliographic, graphical information, audio, and multimedia. Oral Information refers to interviews, conversations, and narration of events (eyewitness accounts) or experiences. It can be delivered in the form of radio/TV programs, audio and video presentations. Fig.3: Examples of Oral Information Textual Information refers to documents that present facts, viewpoints, research findings, fictions, prose, poetry, etc., delivered in the form of books, journal articles, government documents, research/technical reports. 5  Fig.4: Examples of Textual Information Bibliographic Information consists of references or citations to other works, often to texts such as books, journal articles, government documents, and published and unpublished technical reports. Bibliographic information consists of “pointers” which help you verify the existence of textual types of information. Pointers include author’s name, the date of publication, and the source of the information listed. Fig. 5: Examples of bibliographic information Numeric Information is data in the form of numbers and can also be collections of statistics of data collected and published by the government, such as the various district censuses available in print. Examples are: Nigeria Foreign Trade Summary (GP NBS 07 003), Annual Abstracts of Statistics 2006 (GP NBS 08 053). Fig. 6: Examples of Numeric information Graphical Information is pictorial representations of some realities, in the form of pictures, maps, diagrams, charts, tables, 3-D models, or perhaps combinations of any of these. Graphics can be print-based or electronic. Graphics become much richer, of course, on computer screens, because they can often be manipulated or changed. Fig.7: Examples of Graphical Information 6 Multimedia/Hypermedia Information refers to the convergence (bringing together) of other types of information (text, numeric, graphics, audio and video). This seeks to create a more powerful way of learning and understanding complex events or phenomena. Web technology is moving toward text, sound, and graphical integration in ways that traditional print materials never could. Fig. 8: Examples of Multimedia Information THE DIFFERENT FORMATS OF INFORMATION Information can be communicated, searched, retrieved, and stored/recorded in different formats, which can appear in a variety of information types. Format refers to the medium used to present or store the information. Based on this, the following formats have been identified: 1. Print Format includes but is not limited to: Newspapers, Magazines, Textbooks, Pamphlets, Dictionaries, Indexes and Bibliographies. 2. Electronic Format refers to computer technology media in which information is recorded and/or stored, and from which information is retrieved. Examples include Databases, Online Catalogue, Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM), Audio and Video tapes. 3. Micro-Formats (sometimes called Microforms) allow for the miniaturization and archiving of large quantities of information into a relatively small space. Examples include Microfilms and Microfiches. DESCRIPTION OF LIBRARY MATERIALS PRINT FORMAT 1. Textbooks  works written on widely varying themes e.g. documentary, technical, novels and nonfiction books.  written by researchers or experts and are only published after passing through editors or publishers.  can be in print or electronic (e-books).  offer relevant sources of information when looking for an overall background on an issue,  offer relevant sources of information when you want to put your topic in context with other important issues, offer relevant sources of information when you want to find summaries of research to support an argument. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "BK" barcode, located on the library shelves in reading rooms according to their subject areas and can be used within or borrowed out of the library. 7 2. Periodicals:  A periodical literature is defined as published work or writings on a particular subject in a particular style at regular intervals.  They are publications issued at regular intervals or published on a regular basis - daily, weekly, bi- weekly, monthly, bimonthly, quarterly or yearly.  They are the best source for current and up-to-date information in a particular field  They are also referred to as Serials.  The information in periodicals covers a wide variety of topics and is very up-to-date.  They are available in both print and electronic formats. Common types of periodicals include popular magazines, professional and trade magazines/journals, scholarly journals and newsletters, and newspapers. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "P" barcode, shelved in the Periodicals/Serials section according to their subject areas and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed. Types and Uses of Periodical Literature Trade or Commercial Periodicals are types of periodicals published for commercial purposes to provide information on business, practical information and concerns in a particular industry. They exist to make money rather than to provide information. They are targeted at professionals in that industry or students researching that industry. Examples include Aviation Week and Space Technology, American Libraries, Partnership (by shell, Total, Exxon Mobil and others) etc. Scholarly or Professional Journals are journals that have articles written by authorities in a specialized field (that is, scholars in the field or discipline). The target audience is the scholarly researcher, faculty, students, and members of a professional organization. They are, therefore, issued by professional institutions/associations, to provide news and events like forthcoming workshops and conferences, etc.Examples include Journal of Banking and Finance, African Journal of Economic Policy, Journal of the American Medical Association, Journal of Environmental Issues and Agriculture in Developing Countries, etc. Most research papers require the use of scholarly journals Popular Magazines are periodicals for general reading for the purpose of informing and entertaining. Examples include Ebony, Newsweek, Ovation, etc. Newspapers are periodicals that provide current news and vital information on a wide range of topics. They are issued at stated, frequent intervals (usually daily). They contain news, opinions, extensive advertisements, and other items of current, often local, interest. Examples are The Punch, The Guardian, The Sun, The Vanguard, etc. 8 Characteristics of Periodical Literature The main characteristics of scholarly journals are: a. They have plain covers. b. They are mostly text. c. They have authors with institutional affiliations or professional titles. d. They usually have an abstract at the beginning of each article. e. They contain scholarly references, including a bibliography, footnotes or list of references, using standardized citation format. f. They contain very little or no advertisement. g. They contain tables and graphs rather than photographs. h. They give reports on original research or experimentation, often on specific academic disciplines i. The contents of this research are subjected to peer-review process. j. They usually consist of a collection of articles that constitute an important part of the literature in the subject area. They articles are usually longer than magazine articles. k. They are published three times in a year, quarterly, 5 or 6 times in a year, bi-annually, or annually. The main characteristics of Trade or Commercial Periodicals a. They contain business news, product information, advertising, trends in technology, and law. b. They include colorful illustrations and advertisements. c. They are published weekly or monthly. d. They are not subject to peer review. The main characteristics of magazines are: a. They have a glossy look to attract the casual reader. b. They contain lots of advertisements and photographs in them. c. They have a glossy look to attract causal readers. d. They have short articles on various subjects and are written in simple language, by different authors. e. They are aimed at the general public f. They are good sources of general, but current news and opinions. The main characteristics of newspapers are: a. They are a frequent publication, usually issued daily b. Information is printed on newsprint. c. They have unbound sections. d. They contain lots of advertisement. e. News reports are written by field reporters. f. They contain lots of photographs. g. They provide answers to who, what, when where, why, how. Roles/Advantages of Periodical Literature  Periodicals provide current, up-to-date and research-based information on a particular discipline or subject because they are published frequently.  They act as the basis of scholarly communication system.  They provide additional information which may not be covered in textbooks or in a syllabus, because they discuss current events long before they become the subject of a book  Periodicals advertise business at a cheaper cost compared to that of television stations.  They entertain users. 9  They promote a reading culture.  They include varieties of views and opinions readily available from different authors.  They contain information on the latest trends, products, research and theories  They are the best source of ephemeral or very specialized information.  More topics may be covered within one volume of a periodical than in a book due to the shorter length of periodical articles.  They exist for every field and every interest, providing access to a variety of hard-to-find information. 3. Pamphlets These are documents with 50 pages or less. They are filed in steel cabinets located in the reading rooms according to their subject areas. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "PH" barcode and "PAM" preceding the call mark and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed. An example is a pamphlet titled “Essentials of investment in fish farming” the call number will appear as PAM SH 51.A96 2003. 4. Special Collections These are documents published by federal, state and government parastatals and materials published by other organizations like Universities, World Banks, research institutes, etc. Their arrangements and location are different from other library materials. They can be identified by the "GP" (government publication) barcode; the call number is preceded by "BDSC" meaning "Bowen Documentation and Special Collection" and also contains abbreviations such as CTA (Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation), WHO (World Health Organization), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), etc. Any call number with any of the above is a special collection and they are located in the Research section of the library. 5. Reference Materials These are authoritative works that provide specific answers or information and answer different types of questions. There are many examples of reference sources, including atlases, dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, almanacs, manuals, biographies, handbooks, bibliographies, gazetteers, and statistical sources among others. Each type is available either in print, on CD-ROMs and the Internet. References are a good information source for an overview of a subject area as well as for facts, figures, addresses, statistics, definitions and dates. They cannot be borrowed out of the library, but can only be consulted in the library. In Bowen University Library, they are identified by the "R" barcode and "Ref" preceding the call mark. Entries in reference sources are usually arranged either in alphabetical order, classified order, chronological, order or as databases. When arranged alphabetically, entries are by first letters of the topic or a person’s last name and this may be supported by an index and cross-references between related topics or people; when arranged by classified order, entries are divided into categories by topic, geographical region, group identity 10 or some other principle requiring the use of an index to find references to specific topics; when arranged chronologically, entries are organized by date. Often in electronic databases, entries may be in reverse- chronological order, that is the most recent date or information is listed first. In electronic databases, each record contains fields which may be searched. These fields in a database for books include author, title and subject and may also include the date or notes about the book. Unsearchable fields include the publisher or place of publication. Characteristics of Reference Sources: i. They are authoritative works that can be referred to for specific answers or information. ii. They are used to define a given topic and can provide background or introductory information on a topic. iii. They suggest ways of finding materials on a topic or provide statistical or tabular data, as well as technical instruction. iv. They are consulted for information and cannot be read from cover to cover e.g. dictionaries, encyclopedia. These provide factual and detailed information which answer specific query. v. Reference books cannot be checked out of the library because they are usually referred to for particular pieces of information. The writing style used in these works is informative. Categories of Reference Sources Reference sources are categorized into two namely: i. The general reference sources and ii. The subject specific reference sources The general reference collections include general language dictionaries such as Oxford English Dictionary, general encyclopedias such as Encyclopedia Britannica, books in print and other general reference sources. The subject specific reference sources are subject related. They are shelved in the library extension according to their classes in which they belong. Types of Reference Sources There are two types of reference sources: a. Those which contain the information needed like handbooks, dictionaries, etc. b. Those which tell the user where the information can be found like Information Access Tools e.g. indexes, bibliographies, etc. There are two main formats of reference sources namely: 1. The electronic format, and 2. The print format. 11 The print format are the conventional books. They can have a single copy of several volumes depending on the extent of coverage and the style of presentation e.g. World Book Encyclopedia has 22 volumes, Encyclopedia Britannica has 29 volumes. Examples of Reference Sources  Abstracts  Encyclopedias  Almanacs  Gazetteers  Indexes  Bibliographies  Geographical Sources  Manuals  Biographical Sources.  Government Publication  Statistical Sources  Dictionaries  Guides  Yearbooks  Directories  Handbooks 6. Students’ Projects Projects written by final year students of the institution can also be found in the library. They are located in closed shelved (closed access) in the Research section of the library. They are identified by the "TH" barcode and can only be used within the library, they cannot be borrowed out. 7. Multimedia Items Non-print materials are located in the multimedia room and the e-library, in the Systems Unit of the library. These multimedia items consist of both resources in Electronic formats and Micro formats, including databases, video tapes, CDs and audio cassettes of discipline-based materials and CDs that accompany some books on the library shelves. These can be identified by "MM" barcode. ELECTRONIC FORMATS a. Databases A database is a collection of information in electronic form that is organized in a manner that allows a user to easily retrieve information about its individual entries. They are usually collections of citations of articles in journal, magazines, newspapers, dissertations, reviews and abstracts. The content of databases has undergone a review process and the information is more reliable than information found on the Internet. Often databases provide access to full-text magazine and journal articles whilst some contain abstracts or brief summaries. Types of Online/Specialized/Research Databases  Bibliographic Databases Bibliographic databases contain records/representations of information sources. It does not include a complete text of the publication. A record typically includes the bibliographic information that enables you to retrieve 12 or trace the information source such as a book. Some bibliographic database also gives you an abstract. e.g. OPAC  Full-Text Databases A full-text database contains a complete text of journal articles, chapters and etc. When searching full text databases you do not need to make any further effort to trace the publication. You can print or save the copy. e.g. Springer Link  Directory databases Directory databases provide factual information about or links to the information about organizations, companies, products, individuals or materials. They usually do not contain the needed information but contain links or pointers to the needed information  Numeric Databases These databases provide mostly numeric data (numbers) in chart or table format. In some cases, they provide raw data (survey results, scientific studies, etc.) that can be downloaded to your computer, so that you can analyze it and create your own reports.  Multimedia Databases Quite often databases contain more than one data type, such as a combination of bibliographic records with full-text, or a directory with multimedia (audio or image files). b. Online Catalogue: This is a computerized record of books and other materials held by a library/group of libraries. It is also known as Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC). c. Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): This is a flat, round optical disk that can store vast amount of information. It can store information of various types textual, graphic, numeric, pictorial, hypermedia, etc. Fig. 9: Compact Disk-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) Fig. 10: Video Tapes Other electronic formats include: Software packages with numeric data or other types of information, Networked resources available over networks such as the internet. This consists of a variety of resources. Examples include the World Wide Web pages, and electronic journals. In Bowen University Library, CD-ROMs and Videos, including those accompanying library textbooks are kept in the Multimedia room. 13  MICRO FORMATS 1. Microfilm– is a reel of 16mm or 35mm film. Microfilm is often used to store journals and magazines as well as many other types of documents. 2. Microfiche– is a flat sheet of images often used for government documents, company annual reports and other types of information. Fig. 11: Examples of Microfilm and Microfiche Libraries often store rare or out-of-print materials on microfilms or microfiches for preservation purposes. Both types of microforms may be viewed using the readers in the Microform Reading Room. Fig. 12: Microform Reader USES OF INFORMATION Recognizing that an information need exists There must be a need for information before it can be put to use. In other words, the first step in the information problem solving process is to recognize that an information need exists and to define that need. The needs and uses would be defined based on the:  Work activity (occupation)  Discipline/Field/Area of interest (intellectual)  Availability of facilities  Hierarchical position of individuals in an organization  Motivational factors for information needs  Need to take a decision  Need to seek new ideas  Need to validate the correct information  Need to make professional contributions  Need to establish priority for discovery, etc. The uses could however be affected by a variety of factors such as: 14   The background, motivation, professional orientation and other characteristics of the user, and  The social, political, economic, legal and regulatory systems surrounding the user. Differentiating between Information Literacy and Information Technology Table 1: Differences between Information Literacy and Information Technology REFERENCES Hayes, Robert (1992). The measurement of information. In Conceptions of Library and Information Science, Pertti Vakkari and Blaise Cromin (eds.) London: Taylor Graham. Martin, William J. (1995). The Global Information Society. England: Aslib Gover. Ojedokun, Ayoku A. (2007). Information Literacy for Tertiary Education Students in Africa, Ibadan, Nigeria: Third World Information Services. Reitz, Joan M. (2004). Dictionary for Library and Information Science. Westport, Connecticut: Libraries unlimited. Reuben, Brent D. (1992). The Communication-information Relationship in System-theoretic Perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. Stonier, Tom (1991). Towards a new theory of information. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 15