لغويااااات 2025 PDF

# منصة سخاء ## دورة الرخصة المهنية في اللغة الإنجليزية - المدربة نوره السالم ### معيار اللغويات Linguistics - **Linguistics:** the scientific or systematic study of language. الدراسة العلمية لطبيعة اللغة ### Level Of Linguistics - **Pragmatics:** study of language in communication - **Seman...

# منصة سخاء ## دورة الرخصة المهنية في اللغة الإنجليزية - المدربة نوره السالم ### معيار اللغويات Linguistics - **Linguistics:** the scientific or systematic study of language. الدراسة العلمية لطبيعة اللغة ### Level Of Linguistics - **Pragmatics:** study of language in communication - **Semantics:** study of meanings - **Syntax:** study of sentence structure. - **Morphology:** study of word structure. - **Phonology:** study of arrangement of sounds. - **Phonetics:** study of production of sounds. ### Macro-linguistics branches فروع اللغويات الكبرى | | | |----|------------------- | | 1. | Sociolinguistics | | 2. | Computational linguistics | | 3. | Neurolinguistics | | 4. | Discourse analysis | | 5. | Applied linguistics | | 6. | Comparative linguistics | | 7. | Paralinguistics | ### علم الأصوات والصوتيات Phonetics & phonology - **علم الصوتيات Phonetics** - It is the general study of the physical characteristics of speech sound ...دراسة الخصائص الظاهرية للحرف الصوتي - : ينقسم لثلاث أنواع It is divided into three types 1. **Articulatory phonetics** - The study of how speech sounds are made or articulated by. - The speech organs. 2. **Acoustic phonetics** - The study of how speech sounds are transmitted from producer to perceiver. - It deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. 3. **Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics** - The study of how speech sounds are heard by the ears and perceived by the brain. ### علم الأصوات Phonetics - **Consonants or vowels** - **Vowels** - i: - I - ɪ - e - æ - ʌ - ɒ - ɜ: - ɔ: - u: - Iə - eɪ - ɔɪ - aʊ - ə - ʊ - eə - aɪ - əʊ - ɪə - ʊə - eɪ - aɪ - ɔɪ - aʊ - əʊ - a: - ɔ: - u: - ɜ: - **Consonants** - p - b - t - d - ʧ - ʤ - k - g - f - v - θ - ð - s - z - ʃ - ʒ - h - m - n - ŋ - l - r - j - w - **Phonemic Chart** - short - long - dipthongs - voiced - unvoiced ### الفرق بين الحروف الساكنة والمتحركة The difference between vowels & consonants - **Vowel sounds** - are produced with a relatively free flow of air. They are all typically voiced. - **Consonant sounds** - are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in the vocal tract ### الأصوات الاهتزازية والاهتزازية Voicing and non-voicing speech sounds - **In vowels:** all the vowel sounds are voiced - **In consonants:** | No. | Voiceless sounds | Voiced sounds | | --- | --- | --- | | 1. | /p/ pat | /b/ bat | | 2. | /f/ few | /v/ view | | 3. | /t/ tear | /d/ dear | | 4. | /s/ Sue | /z/ zoo | | 5. | /tf/ choke | /dz/ joke | | 6. | /k/ cap | /g/ gap | | 7. | /θ/ think | /ð/ this | ### States of the Vocal Cords - **Voiceless** (folds open) - **Voiced** (folds together) ### الوصف لطريقة نطق الحروف الساكنة المعتمد من (The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA Articulatory Description of English Consonants - **(Voiced, Voiceless) وضع الأحبال الصوتية** - تم وصفه في الجدول الصفحة السابقة - Place of articulation مكان النطق - أولاً لابد من معرفة أعضاء النطق داخل التجويف الفموي - مكان النطق - **The Speech Organ** - **Nasal cavity** - **Alveolar Ridge** - **Lips** - **Teeth** - **Larynx** - **Palate** - **Uvula** - **Tongue** - **Pharynx** - **Vocal cords** - **Epiglottis** - **Manners of Articulation كيفية النطق** - **Bilabials** - are sounds formed using both lips. /p,b,m,w/ - **Alveolar** - sounds are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge which is the rough behind the upper teeth. /t,d,s,z,l,n,r/, - **Labio-dentals** - are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. /f,v/. - **Dentals** - are sounds formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. - Εχ./θ, δ/ - **Palatal** - or alveo-palatal sounds are those in which there is a constriction between the front of the tongue and the hard palate. /s, 3, tf, d3/. One other palatal sound is /j/. - **Velar** - sounds are those in which there is a constriction between the back of the tongue and the velum (soft palate) /k, g, n/ - **Glottal** - sounds are produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. An Example of a glottal sound in English is /h/ ### ثانيا لابد من معرفه كيفية النطق لكل حرف صوتی 2- Manner of articulation - **Stops التوقفات** - they are all produced by some form of "stopping" of the air stream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly. - They are: /p,b,t,d,k,g/ - **Fricatives الاحتكاكات** - they involve almost (friction) blocking the air stream, and having the air push through the very narrow opening. - They are /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, J, 3, h/ - **Affricates** - If you combine a brief stopping of the air stream with an obstructed release which causes some friction. - They are/tf, d3/. - **Nasals** - they are produced through the nose /m,n, n/. - **Liquids (lateral ,retro flex)** - the /l/ sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of the tongue. The /r/ sound is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge - **Glides** - They are produced with the tongue in motion (or gliding) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes called semi vowels./w.j/, - This sound occurs in the Cockney speech and the speech of many New Yorkers. You can produce a glottal stop if you try to say the word butter without pronouncing the "tt" part in the middle. - **Glottal stop** - يرمز له بالشكل الصوتي /7 / - **Flap** - If you pronounce the word "butter" in a way that is close to "budder", then you are making a flap. It is represented by [D] or sometimes[r]. ### الوصف الصوتي للحروف الساكنة Articulatory Description of English vowels - There are 3 kinds of vowels in English: - Monothongs (Short vowels & Long vowels) - Diphthongs (two vowels) - Triphthong (three vowels) | Part Of Tongue | Description | |---|---| | Front | Close | | | Half-close | | | Half-open | | | Open | | Central | | | Back | | | | How far | | | the tongue | | | is raised | | Short | Long | |---|---| | ɪ pit | i: key | | e pet | eɪ pet | | æ pat | æ pat | | ʌ putt | ɑ: putt | | ɒ cut | ɔ: core | | ʊ coo | u: car | | ɜ: cur | ɜ: car | | Short Vowels | Words | |---|---| | /ɪ/ | lid, big, win, chick, fill | | /e/ | led, ben, wet check, fell | | /æ/ | tan, pan, bat, sacks, dad | | /ʌ/ | ton, pun , but, sucks, dud | | /ɒ/ | lock, cod, dock, lost, box | | /ʊ/ | should, could, would, look, pull | | /ə/ | obey, allow, annoy, dinners, pilot | | Long Vowels | Words | |---|---| | /i:/ | lead, wheat, been, cheeck, feel | | /ɜ:/ | heard, purse, perched, burn, firm | | /ɑ:/ | pass, hard, barn, farm, larks | | /ɔ:/ | shord, cord, ward, board, torn | | /u:/ | puul, cooed, loose, food, soon | | ### Examples of Diphthongs | Diphthong | Notes | |---|---| | /eɪ/ | /a/is quite similar to the/A/ | | /aɪ/ | //has the same quality as 3: | | /ɔɪ/ | /a/is similar to /a/ | | Words | |---| | ear /1ər/ | | fear /fiər/ | | real /riəl/ | | beard /biəd/ | | Words | |---| | hair /heər/ | | bare /beər/ | | airs /eərz/ | | wary /weəri/ | | Words | |---| | poor /pʊər/ | | sure /ʃʊər/ | | tourist /ˈtʊərɪst/ | | purely /ˈpjʊərli/ | | Words | |---| | late /leɪt/ | | paper /ˈpeɪpər/ | | rake /reɪk/ | | sail /seɪl/ | | Words | |---| | white /waɪt/ | | rice /raɪs/ | | like /laɪk/ | | rise /raɪz/ | | Words | |---| | boy /bɔɪ/ | | oil /ɔɪl/ | | voice /vɔɪs/ | | toy /tɔɪ/ | | Words | |---| | low /ləʊ/ | | snow /snəʊ/ | | coal /kəʊl/ | | close /kləʊz/ | | Words | |---| | now /naʊ/ | | loud /laʊd/ | | found /faʊnd/ | | doubt /daʊt/ | ### TRIPHTHONGS | Triphthong | Words | |---|---| | /aɪə/ | fire, tired, flyer | | /aʊə/ | hour/our, power, tower | | /eɪə/ | player, mayor | | /əʊə/ | lower, widower | | /ɔɪə/ | loyal, royal | ### Phonetic Transcription - It uses the symbols of International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) the most popular phonetic transcription system in the world. - **Phonetic transcription (narrow)** - It provides more details on how the actual sounds are pronounced and uses brackets []. - For example: pʰɪl - **VS Phonemic transcription (broad)** - *It shows the representation of phonemes between slashes // - For example:/bæt/ ### علم الأصوات Phonology - يدروس الأصوات على مستوى الكلام و الجمل والأنماط deals with the study of the way speech sounds form patterns - مثلا : word stress, intonation, syllabuses - Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical or articulation of speech sounds. ### Phoneme - smallest unit of speech distinguishing one word (or word element): from another, as the element p in "tap," which separates that word from "tab," "tag," and "tan." الوحدة الصوتية ### Phonemes and Allophones - **Phoneme:** is the abstract unit of sound in the mind - **Allophones:** are the different versions of the same phoneme - الاشكال المختلفة لنفس الوحدة الصوتية الفونيم . للتوضيح بالأمثلة - في اللغة الإنجليزية allophones لدينا مثالين مثلاً 1. Different allophones of the phoneme/t/ in English: - "Aspirated in "tar [th] - Un-aspirated in "star" [t] - "flapped in "writer [D] 2. Different allophones of the phoneme /i:/ in English: - Nasalized/i:~/ seen" - Oral/i:/ seed ### التمثيل الصوتي الواسع والضيق Broad and Narrow Phonetic Transcription - **Broad transcriptions:** Represent only contrastive sounds (phonemes) / / :Enclosed in slashes - **Narrow transcriptions:** Represent phones علامات التشكيل Capture as much phonetic detail (diacritics( - []:Enclosed in brackets ### Minimal pairs and Minimal sets - **Minimal pair** - A Minimal pair is a pair of two words that have similar sounds except for a difference of one sound in the same position.. - كلمتان مختلفتان في صوت واحد فقط في نفس البيئة الصوتية - مثال : "pat" & "bat" - **Minimal set** - a group of three or more words that have similar sounds except for one sound in the same position such as the six words. - )big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig( مثل ### أنواع التوزيع صوتي في الحروف النطق Types of distribution in speech sounds - **1. Contrastive distribution التوزيع التقابل** - the relationship between two different phonemes in which both phonemes are found in the same phonological environment with a change in meaning مثل تماما وضع minimal pair مثال: rat / bat - **2. Complementary distribution** - The relationship between the variant (allophones) of the same phoneme each of them occurs in different phonological environment مثل تماما وضع allophones Aspirated /p/ in. "pot" Unaspirated /p/in. " clap" - **3. free variation** - When two sounds appear in the same environment without creating a semantic contrast between two words. مثل - مثال اذا عندنا كلمه و لها نطقان مختلف و المعنى واحد either ### مفهوم القيود الصوتية Phonotactics - It is permitted arrangements of sounds in a language and are obviously part of every speaker's phonological knowledge. Forms such as /fslg/ or /rnlg/ do not exist or are unlikely ever to exist. - المتبعة والمسموحة في ترتيب حروف الأصوات في المفردة ### التجزئة الصوتية Segmenting - Is the ability to break up spoken words into their separate sounds. For example, as we spell the word 'fish', we segment it into its three sounds, also known as phonemes. - سحاء التعليم - **المقاطع اللفظية Syllables** - Syllable is a part of a word that contains a single vowel sound and that is pronounced as a unit. | Part | Description | |---|---| | **Onset** | the part of syllable before the vowel | | **Nucleus** | the vowel in the syllable | | **Coda** | the part of syllable after the vowel | | **Consonant cluster** | two or more consonants in a sequence weather in an onset or coda position. For example: black, street...etc | ### أنواع المقاطع الصوتية Kinds of syllables - **Open syllable:** a syllable that ends with a vowel (or nucleus) and has no coda. E.g., me, she. - **Closed syllable:** a syllable that ends a consonant or a coda. E.g., on, rat, at. ### العمليات الفونولوجية Co-articulation Effects (phonological processes( - **1- Assimilation الادغام والدمج:** a phonological process where two neighboring (adjacent) speech sounds within words and between words become similar in one or more features. - عملية صوتية يتشابه فيها صوتان متجاوران داخل الكلمات وبين الكلمات في واحدة أو أكثر من السمات. - مثال . : Books), Bags (z( - **2- elision الحذف :** The process of deleting one or more sounds in a word especially in pronunciation. - مثال: frendip] → [frenſlp[ - **3- nasalization القنة :** Nasalization occurs when an upcoming nasal affects the sound, usually a vowel, just before it. - مثال: man = màn[ ### ما ورا الوحدات الصوتية Suprasegment al phonology - في بعض الأحيان لا يقتصر المعرفة ب تجزئة الكلمة الى وحداتها الصوتية في استيعابها ومعرفة نطقها. بل يوجد التشديد و التنغيم او ارتفاع النبرة دلالات تدل على معنى الكلام. - **1-stress:** - is the relative emphasis or prominence given to a certain syllable in a word or to a certain word in a phrase or sentence. For example, stress is important: when the word 'import' is pronounced with the first syllable sounding stronger than the second, English speakers hear it as a noun, whereas when the second syllable is stronger the word is heard as a verb. - **2- intonation النبرة** - We have raising intonation and falling one. For example: yes/no questions (raising intonation) Wh Q (falling intonation). ### Questions 1. Which of the following is produced with a complete a complete air obstruction?: - A./u/. - B./j/. - C./t/ - D./s/ 2. t/, /t/and/t/ in tuck, hits and slept are called - A. allophones - B. allomorphs. - C. minimal sets. - D. minimal pairs 3. In phonology, 'cat and mat' are known as ..... - A. minimal pair - B. minimal set - C. allophones - D. phones 4. When two or more sounds do not occur in the same sound environment are called: - A. minimal pairs. - B. minimal sets. - C. Allophones - D. contrastive distribution 5. When a word is pronounced in two different ways such as "either" /aið / or /i:ð/ are called: - A. Complementary distribution. - B. Free variation. - C. Minimal pairs 6. Identify the voiceless sound among the following: - A./b/. - B./d/ - C./p/. - D./z/ 7. When a speech sound undergoes a change in articulation in connected speech, becoming more like a neighboring sound, this process is known as: - A. assimilation - B. aspiration - C. adaptation - D. articulation 8. Good pronunciation requires the ability to correctly produce and use. .. - A. Sounds, stress, and intonation. - B. Sounds, stress, and meanings. - C. Sound, words, and meanings. - D. Sound, words and production 9. Identify the voiceless sound among the following: - A./b/ - B./d/ - C./z/ - D./p/. 10. Vowels are characterised by: .. - A. very slight friction in the voice box - B. free flow of air in the oral cavity - C. one fixed tongue for all vowels - D. stoppage in the oral cavity # منصة سخاء ## دورة الرخصة المهنية في اللغة الإنجليزية - المدربة نوره السالم ### علم النحو Syntax - **Syntax:** is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language. هي دراسة القواعد التي تحكم طريقة دمج الكلمات لتكوين جمل في اللغة. ### التحليل البنية النحوية ، كان هناك تركيز أكبر على نظام القواعد الأساسي الذي تستخدمه لإنتاج أو إنشاء جمل. Syntactic analysis and generative grammar التحليل النحوي والقواعد التوليدية - A goal of syntactic analysis, which is to have a small and finite set of rules that will be capable of producing a large and potentially infinite number of well formed structures this small and finite set of rules is sometimes described as a generative grammar because it can be used to generate or produce sentence structures and not just describe them. - الهدف من التحليل النحوي ، وهو الحصول على مجموعة صغيرة ومحدودة من القواعد التي ستكون قادرة على إنتاج عدد كبير وربما لا نهائي من الهياكل جيدة التكوين ، توصف هذه المجموعة الصغيرة والمحدودة من القواعد أحيانًا بأنها قواعد نحوية توليدية لأنها يمكن أن تكون تستخدم لتوليد أو إنتاج تراكيب الجمل وليس مجرد وصفها. ### Phrase structural rules - **A Simple Set of Phrase Structure Rules** - S -> NP+VP - NP -> art + (adj*) + N - VP -> V+NP+ (PP*) - PP -> Prep + NP - N -> sailor, cat, horse, bridge, ... - V -> saluted, kissed, fried ... - adj -> drunken, puzzled, gregarious .. - art -> a, the - prep -> on, under ### البناء العميق والظاهري Deep structure Vs surface structure - The terms' deep structure and surface structure were introduced by Noam Chomsky - . - Amal broke the door - The door was broken by Amal - It is Amal Who broke the door. - Was the door broken by Amal? - اقرأ هذه الجمل - نلاحظ ان الاختلاف ظاهريا في عناصر الجمل ولكن المعنى العميق نفسه - So, they are different in their surface structure, but they have the same deep structure "underlying structure ". - **Deep structure** - the underlying structure that conveys the meaning of the sentence - **Surface structure** - the superficial arrangements or the constituents (the syntactic form of the sentence which results from transformational rules. - yes/no Q او تحويل ل wh قواعد التحويلات هي تحويل ### Ambiguity - Structural ambiguity occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one underlying structure. - **1- Structural ambiguity:** - Structural ambiguity, also known as syntactic ambiguity, occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one underlying structure. Such a sentence can be interpreted in more than one way. - **2- Lexical ambiguity:** - Lexical ambiguity, also known as semantic ambiguity, occurs when a sentence has an ambiguous word or phrase (which has more than one possible meaning). This phenomenon is a result of polysemy. - إذا للجملة أكثر من تفسير - مثال: - الغموض على مستوى المفردة فقط - مثال - • Miriam hit the boy with a book. - تفسر بطريقتين سا - Miriam used the book to hit the boy. - Miriam hit the boy who was holding a booking. - • The fisherman went to the bank. - The fisherman went to the river bank. - The fisherman went to a financial institution. - قد يكون البنك المصرفي او معنى كلمة بنك ضفة النهر ### Recursion التكرار - The rules of grammar will also need the crucial property of recursion. In this, we can put sentences inside other sentences and these sentences can be generated inside another sentences. - Notice these: - . Mary helped George. - Cathy knew that Mary helped George. - John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George. ### الفئات النحوية Grammatical / syntactic categories or parts of speech - **1- Words:** - **Lexical Categories** - Nouns - Verbs - Adjectives - Adverbs - **Functional Categories** - Pronouns - Prepositions - Conjunctions - Determiners ### الأسماء - Nouns - They Refer to people, places, things, ideas, or concepts. - **Common nouns** - الأسماء العامة - **Abstract nouns (mass nouns)** - الأسماء المجردة - **Collective nouns** - أسماء الجموع - **Concrete nouns** - أسماء ملموسه ### الأفعال Verbs - **TYPES OF VERBS** - **01 Regular Verb** - A verb that's past (2nd form) and past participle (3rd form) is made by adding 'd' or 'ed' is called regular verb. - **02 Irregular Verb** - If the formation of the verb is otherwise than the regular verb, it is called irregular verb. - **03 Linking Verb** - A verb that acts as a link between two words is called linking verb. It connects or links a subject to a noun or an adjective in the predicate. - **04 Transitive Verb** - A verb that needs object to complete itself is called transitive verb. It is called transitive because it passes its action from subject to object. - **05 Intransitive Verb** - A verb that doesn't need any object to complete itself is called intransitive verb. It does not pass its action from subject to the object. - **06 Finite Verb** - Finite verbs mean those verbs which can change their form in accordance with the subject. - **07 Infinite Verb** - An infinitive is a verb which has "to" before it. It shows infinite action when is used at the beginning of the sentence. - **08 Auxiliary verbs** - أفعال Do do does, did - أفعال have have, has, had( - أفعال Be is, am, are( ### الضمائر - Pronouns | | Subject Pronouns | Object Pronouns | Possessive Adjectives | Possessive Pronouns | Reflexive Pronouns | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1st person singular | I | me | my | mine | myself | | 2nd person singular | you | you | your | yours | yourself | | 3rd person singular (male) | he | him | his | his | himself | | 3rd person singular (female) | she | her | her | hers | herself | | 3rd person singular (neuter) | it | it | its | its | itself | | 1st person plural | we | us | our | ours | ourselves | | 2nd person plural | you | you | your | yours | yourselves | | 3rd person plural | they | them | their | theirs | themselves | - **Other types أنواع أخرى** - Indefinite Pronouns: some- (someone) / any- (anywhere) / no / ever- (everyone) - Relative Pronouns: who/which/that/when/where/whose - Demonstrative Pronouns: this / that / those / those - Reciprocal Pronouns: each other / one another - **Adjectives الصفات** - Gradable adjective: Like cold, hot I can say very cold, a bit hot. - Non-gradable adjectives: Like Wooden, single, married. I can't say a bit married ! ### Adverbs - An adverb is a word that describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective. - **For example:** - adverbs of manner e.g. carefully, slowly - adverbs of place e.g. here, there, locally - adverbs of time e.g. now, hourly, yesterday - adverbs of frequency e.g. always, sometimes, never - adverbs of degree e.g. quite, extremely, very ### كلمات الربط - Conjunction - **Types of Conjunctions in English** - **Coordinating Conjunctions** - for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so - F.A.N.B.O.Y.S. - **Subordinating Conjunctions** - after - although - as - as far as - as if - as long as - as soon as - because - before - even if - when - where - wherever - even though - every time - in order that - since - so - so that - than - though - unless - until - whenever - whereas - while - **Correlative Conjunctions** - either...or - not only...but (also) - neither...nor - both....and - whether...or - as...as - the...the - as much...as - no sooner...than - rather...than ### حروف الجر - Preposition - For example: on, in, by, with, under, though, at ### مشاعر - Interjection - Interjections are words which express emotion. Examples: Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha! ### Articles - Examples: the (definite article) a, an (indefinite article) ### )المشددات كلمات التوكيد - Intensifiers - Intensifiers are adverbs that strengthen and show emphasis in meaning. For example: completely, extremely, highly, rather, really, so, too, totally, absolutely. ### المعرفات - Modifiers - A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies that is, gives information about another word in the same sentence. مثال - I'm going to the Saturn Café for a vegetarian burger. - The modifier "vegetarian" gives extra information about what kind of burger it is. ### المحددات - Determiners - Articles: (the, a or an): the home team a good team - demonstratives (e.g. this, those) that pupil - possessives (e.g. my, your) Julia's parents - quantifiers (e.g. some, every) some big boys ### Subject and predicate - The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. - For example: "The cat is sleeping in the sun." The clause sleeping in the sun is the predicate. ### Types of phrases - A phrase is a group of words which function as a single part of speech. | Phrase | Sentence | |---|---| | 1. Noun Phrase | The teacher is coming to the classroom. | | 2. Verb Phrase | She has left her puppy on the road. | | 3. Prepositional Phrase | The computer is placed on the table. | | 4. Gerund Phrase | Crawling down the stairs is dangerous. | | 5. Infinitive Phrase | To crawl in the whole room. | | 6. Participle Phrase | Washed nicely, the entire room is shining. | | 7. Appositive Phrase | My favourite bike, Harley Davidson, | | 8. Absolute Phrase. | The race finished, my friend came first. | ### Types of Clauses - Clauses are groups of words that contain both a subject and a predicate. - **INDEPENDENT CLAUSE** - An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. - **The secret of life is honesty.** - Independent clause - (This is also a sentence.) - **If you can fake that,** - dependent clause - (This couldn't be a sentence.) - **you've got it made.** - Independent clause - (This could be a sentence.) ### Types of Sentences | Type | Description | |---|---| | **Simple** | One independent clause. The dog barks. | | **Compound** | Two independent clauses separated by a semicolon or a comma & conjunction. The pirate captain lost the treasure map, but he still found the buried treasure. | | **Complex** | One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Because the soup was too cold, I warmed it in the microwave. | | **Compound-Complex** | Two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Though Michael enjoys watching comedies, he rented the latest spy thriller, and he enjoyed it very much. | ### 4 Types of Sentences - **Declarative Sentence** - Tells something. - Ends with a period. (.) - **Exclamatory Sentence** - Shows strong feeling. - Ends with an exclamation mark. (!) - **Interrogative Sentence** - Asks a question. - Ends with a question mark. (?) - **Imperative Sentence** - Gives a command. - Ends with a period or an exclamation mark. (. or !) ### أنواع النفي Types of negation | Type | Description | |---|---| | **Clausal negation** | لفي كلي The whole clause is negated. e.g. don't, didn't.... | | **Sub-clausal Negation (Partial)** | نفي جزئي e.g. Prefixes (un-, non-, in-, im-, un-), suffixes such as (-less) | | **Absolute Negation** | e.g. no, nothing, none, nobody, no one | ### Fragment sentence & run on sentence - **Both are incorrect sentences** - **Fragment** - incomplete sentence (missing parts) - **Run