Introduction to Globalization PDF

COURSE MATERIALS: Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in Lesson 6 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION enterprises in other countrie...

COURSE MATERIALS: Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in Lesson 6 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of GLOBALIZATION globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. While the term communication has been in existence for a long time, the term globalization is relatively new in our vocabularies. In comparison to communication, But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred which is generally understood by all, globalization is not. increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic A. WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION? development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by 20 Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalization from investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalization is “farther, environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and faster, cheaper, and deeper.” prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world. ("What Is Globalization? | Globalization101", 2016) This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, Heywood (as cited in Bernales, Balon and Biligan, 2018) describes globalization as a and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted slippery and elusive concept. Despite intensifying interest in the phenomenon of free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and globalization since the 1980s, the term is still used to refer, variously, to a process, a creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. policy, a marketing strategy, a predicament, or even an ideology. The problem with Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and globalization is that it is not so much an ‘it’ as a ‘them’: it is not a single process but a have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and complex of processes, sometimes overlapping and interlocking processes but also, at investment. Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations times, contradictory and oppositional ones. It is difficult therefore to reduce have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements globalization to a single theme. Perhaps the best attempt to do this was in Kenchi with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international Ohmae’s (1989) idea of a borderless world. This not only refers to the tendency of industrial and financial business structure. traditional political border, based on national and state boundaries, to become permeable; it also implies that divisions between people previously separated by time Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in and space have become less significant and are sometimes entirely irrelevant… information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. It also describes the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures Information technologies have given all sorts of individual economic actors— have become integrated through a global network of political ideas through consumers, investors, businesses—valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing communication, transportation, and trade. economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung Roland Robertson defined globalization as “the compression of the world and the partners. ("What Is Globalization? | Globalization101", 2016). intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole.” Globalization is also the process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, GLOBALIZATION VS LOCAL CULTURE products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. Put in simple terms, globalization refers The globalization of the production and distribution of goods and services is a to processes that increase worldwide exchanges of national and cultural resources. welcome development for many people in that it offers them access to products that they would not otherwise have. However, some are concerned that the changes Advances in transportation and telecommunication infrastructure, including the rise of brought about by globalization threaten the viability of locally made products and the the telegraph and its posterity the internet, are major factors in globalization, people who produce them. generating further interdependence of economic and cultural activities. Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, people—and, later, corporations—have been For example, the new availability of foreign foods in a market—often at cheaper buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the prices—can displace local farmers who have traditionally earned a living by working famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the their small plots of family-owned land and selling their goods locally. Globalization, of course, does more than simply increase the availability of foreign-made consumer within the last fifty years, McDonalds has expanded to over 31,000 restaurants products and disrupt traditional producers. It is also increasing international trade in worldwide. McDonaldization, Ritzer argues, is a result of globalization and, ultimately, cultural products and services, such as movies, music, and publications. The leads to global uniformity, influencing local habits and traditions. Take, for example, the expansion of trade in cultural products is increasing the exposure of all societies to previously mentioned example of Starbucks coffee disrupting the traditional coffee foreign cultures. And the exposure to foreign cultural goods frequently brings about culture in Italy. This sometimes leads to negative reactions, such as in the case of the changes in local cultures, values, and traditions. Although there is no consensus on Starbucks coffeehouse in the Forbidden City in central Beijing. This particular the consequences of globalization on national cultures, many people believe that a Starbucks branch, which opened in 2000, was shut down in 2007 due to heavy people's exposure to foreign culture can undermine their own cultural protests. Critics called it a stain on China’s historical legacy. identity(Globalization 101, n.d.-b). INFLUENCE OF U.S. CORPORATIONS IN THE LOCAL MORES One of the principal concerns about the new globalization of culture that is supposedly taking place is that it not only leads to a homogenization of world culture, but also that it largely represents the "Americanization" of world cultures. The spread of American corporations abroad has various consequences on local cultures, some very visible, and others more subtle. The concerns that globalization leads to a dominance of US customs and values are For example, the influence of American companies on other countries' cultural identity also present with regard to films and the entertainment industry more broadly. This is can be seen with regard to food, which matters on two levels. First, food itself is in the case with French films in France, for example. As will be discussed later in the many countries an integral aspect of the culture. Second, restaurants can influence brief, governments from countries like France have attempted to intervene in the the mores and habits in societies where they operate. The French are proud of having functioning of the market to try to protect their local cultural industries, by taking a localized cuisine, including crepes and pastries, which reflects their unique culture. measures such as restricting the number of foreign films that can be shown. But if a Because of their pride in their cuisine, some French people are concerned that U.S. government imposes domestic films, TV shows, or books onto its people, it limits restaurant chains crowd out their own products with fast food. Some French people their choice to consume what they prefer. In other words, the government is effectively would argue that fast food does not belong in French society and is of lower saying that it does not trust its people to make the choices that are right for them. quality than their own. Throughout history, cultures have changed and evolved. Globalization may accelerate cultural change. However, because change is driven by the choice of consumers, the Moreover, restaurant chains not only affect eating habits, but they also influence the elements of a particular culture will inevitably reflect consumer choice (Globalization traditions and habits in countries where they are located. Starbucks causes cultural 101, n.d.). concerns in Italy because of the association that Italians make between coffee and leisurely sidewalk cafes. Coffee in Italy is more than a drink; it is part of the way of life WHAT IS CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION? and Italian mores. While in the I. CULTURE Culture is one of the important concepts in sociology. In The United States it is common for people to buy takeaway coffee for drinking in the No human society can exist and develop without its culture. The main street or office, in Italy people usually prefer to relax and chat with peers while drinking difference between animal and human societies is of culture only. coffee. Coffee shops offer a personal, friendly atmosphere that many Italians believe a Animal societies have no culture because they do not have systems of large chain could not provide. Similarly, many people would prefer to frequent coffee learning and transmitting social experiences. shops that are each unique, while “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, Starbucks offers a standard formula. Another example can be seen with the worldwide beliefs, art, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits influence of McDonald's. Fittingly enough, the sociologist George Ritzer coined the acquired by man as a member of the society.” –Edward Taylor term McDonaldization. In his book The McDonaldization of Society, Ritzer states that Other definitions of culture: “the principles of the fastfood restaurant are coming to dominate more and more Linton – “Culture is social heredity, which is transmitted from one sectors of American society as well as of the rest of the world.” Statistics show that generation to another with the accumulation of individual experiences.”  John Beattee: “Culture is the way of life which is transmitted from generation It is also the rapid movement of ideas, attitudes and values across national borders. to generation.” Likewise, cultural globalization refers to the interpenetration of cultures which, as a consequence, means nations adopt principles, beliefs, and costumes of other nations, Types of Culture losing their unique culture to a unique, globalized supra-culture (“What is a) Material Culture Globalization? a. From material culture, we understand material and physical objects. For instance, house, road, vehicles, pen, table, radio set, book etc. these are products of human Examples, efforts to control his environment and make his life comfortable and safe. Definition, Benefits and Effects,” 2020). Watson (2017) also defined cultural globalization as a phenomenon by which the experience of everyday life, as b) Non- Material Culture influenced by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, reflects a standardization of a. In non-material culture, we include non-material objects. For example religion, art, cultural expressions around the world. Propelled by the efficiency or appeal of wireless ideas, customs, values system, attitudes, knowledge etc. it does not have physical communications, electronic commerce, popular culture, and international travel, shape. It is very important in determining human behavior and has a strong hold on an globalization has been seen as a trend toward homogeneity that will eventually make individual. Both parts are inter-related with each other. human experience everywhere essentially the same. This appears, however, to be an overstatement of the phenomenon. Although homogenizing influences do indeed c) Real Culture exist, they are far from creating anything akin to a single world culture. a. Real culture is that which can be observed in our social life. The culture on which we act upon in our daily life is real culture. It is that parts of culture, which the people Examples: Pop Culture (Celebrity activisim, typical TV shows, fashion style) adopt in their social life, for example. If a person says that he/she is Muslim and [Readmore on: i.(Globalization 101, n.d.-d) follows all the principles of Islam, then the principles of Islam [as culture] is real. When https://www.globalization101.org/pop-culture/ he doesn’t follow, it is not real. ii. (Globalization 101, n.d.-a) https://www.globalization101.org/bono-the-power-of-one/ o Culture of Luxury (in Russia) [Read more on: i. (Globalization 101, n.d.-e) d) Ideal Culture https://www.globalization101.org/the-globalization-of-luxury-3/ o Culture of beauty a. The culture which is presented as a pattern to the people is called ideal culture. It [Read more on: is the goal of society and never achieved fully because some parts remain out of i. (Globalization 101, n.d.-c) https://www.globalization101.org/is-beauty-globalized-2/ practice. This culture is explained in books, speeches, etc. o Culture of Imperialismo Linguistic Imperialism Culture is often defined in interrelation to communication. “Culture is communication and communication is culture” Lesson 7 IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION TO COMMUNICATION AND TO Culture is linked to communication and a wide-range of human experience GLOBAL COMMUNICATION including feelings, identity and sense-making. It provides people with different ways of thinking, seeing, hearing and interpreting the world. It also IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON COMMUNICATION involves a number of man-made, collective artifacts and is shared by the In an article entitled, The Impact of Globalization on Communication Skills members of a social group. Development, David Ingram said that communication skills development has always Finally, it is something that shapes one’s behavior or structures one’s been an important factor of success in business, but the influence of globalization and perception of the world. cross-cultural interaction in recent decades has impacted the types of communication skills needed in dramatic ways. No longer can entrepreneurs afford to simply communicate well within their own homogenous cultures. Thus, today, people need to understand the dynamics of long-distance collaboration, the impact of culture on manners of speaking and body language, and how to use technology to communicate with people on the other side of the globe: B. CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION Virtual Interactions “Cultural Globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values Globalization has introduced virtual communication and collaboration as a major part across national borders. This process is marked by the spread of commodities and of workplace dynamics. Modern entrepreneurs need to understand the strengths and ideologies, which become standardized around the world.” limitations of different communications media, and how to use each medium to maximum effect. For example, communicating via email to distant team members IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON GLOBAL COMMUNICATION requires a certain etiquette and nuance not necessarily required in face-to-face According to Danev (2017), the process of globalization has widely increased the interactions. Holding virtual meetings requires a similar change in approach, and availability of information for people across the world. By the use of Internet and people who are unaccustomed to communicating in groups in virtual settings can find advanced mobile services, people are able to discuss business plans and proposals themselves lost, confused or unable to share their input. When choosing a on an International level as well as exchange private data securely. Global communication skills training program, look for courses that address the challenges of communication services have also contributed to the enlightenment and development virtual interactions. of the political process in a number of states. Cultural Awareness in Speech Danev (2017) also enumerates three major impacts of globalization on global The need for cultural awareness is a major impact of globalization on the required skill communication and identifies the major problem, as follows: set of effective communicators, resulting in the evolution of communication skills 1. Availability of Information. The availability of information is a major effect of the development programs. Modern entrepreneurs and employees need the ability to process of globalization. The World Health Organization, in its works focused on the catch subtle nuances of people's manner of speech when communicating across cultural dimensions of globalization, has expressed the view that with the spread of cultures. Even when two people are speaking the same language, cultural differences business delivering Internet, satellite TV and mobile services, the costs of such can affect vocabulary, colloquial expressions, voice tone and taboo topics. In information technologies drop. The decreased prices makes it easier for people across Japanese business culture, for example, it can be considered rude to ask personal the world to make use of the World Wide Web and resources available. questions in an initial business meeting. In the U.S., on the other hand, asking personal questions and sharing personal information can display warmth and 2. Business Conduct. Globalization has influenced global communication by openness. American and Japanese business people who understand this about each implementing new techniques for business conduct among workers at international other can communicate in ways that resonate more effectively with each other. corporations. Long distance travels are no longer necessary for business people should they require a meeting with a partner overseas. Internet technology makes it Cultural Awareness in Body Language possible to exchange business information and conduct video conferences. Awareness of cultural differences in body language can be just as important as the Additionally, enhanced communication allows businesses to promote their products nuances of speech. That is why in schools, students are taught to understand more efficiently in the International market. This significantly changed the business acceptable speaking distances, conflict styles, eye contact and posture in different world. In his works on the matter, U.S. economist John Thompson concludes that the cultures, accepting that the physical expressions of their own culture are not advanced means of communication have enabled international organizations to take universally accepted. Look for training programs that address these differences to faster and more adequate decisions in accordance with the changes in economic, prepare you for face-to-face meetings with foreign suppliers, customers or team political or social setting in a particular region. For example, as described by Boonlert members when they become professionals. Supadhiloke, a professor of communication in Bangkok University, Thai-based International technology corporations use advance communications to respond to the Time Differences growing demand for Thai-made products. The advent of global collaboration introduces another new dynamic to communication skills-- the need to communicate and share information with people across several 3. Social Awareness. The availability of information, which is a direct effect of the time zones. When people collaborate with others on the other side of the globe, their development of global communication systems, has led to increased social awareness counterparts are usually at home asleep while they themselves are at work. This is of people across the world. Information technology and networks enable them to share why schools teach students to address the nuances of overcoming this challenge by opinions, views, work on projects and research different areas. These are among the teaching people to understand the information needs of their colleagues, according to main reasons why the process of globalization is creating a sense of a global society. the communication styles of different countries or cultures. Being able to effectively For example, through the use of communication, many students from the developing share information between shifts can make or break the countries enroll in university degrees in the developed world. Education is only a productivity of a geographically dispersed team, making this an important issue for single sector of social awareness. Other effects, like social determination, have also many companies. This skill is particularly need in call centers catering clients from occurred – the political unrest in Tunisia in the beginning of 2011 had been inspired by countries of different time zones. opinions and political considerations shared over the social networks available on the web. 4. The Problem. Despite its quick spread and continuous development, global further highlight the need for organizations to develop the internal communication communication has not reached the majority of people on all continents. The World capacity necessary to control and monitor external threats. Health Organization indicates that at least 70 percent of all people in Africa will never make a single phone call or use application of communication technologies as part of the process of globalization. As society becomes more globally connected the ability to communicate across UNIT 3 –LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULURAL cultural boundaries has gained increasing prominence. For example, global SETTING businesses must understand how to communicate with employees and customers OVERVIEW: from different cultures in order to fulfill the organization’s mission and build value for Effective communication is the heart of any organization. It drives change, shapes stakeholders. Also, the use of technology has had a profound impact on how expectations, and rallies people towards a common goal. Productivity in the workplace businesses communicate globally and market their products and services. However, is therefore dependent on a professional’s ability to communicate with and influence with the advancements in technology, individuals, groups, organizations and others effectively. institutions must be sensitive to the culture nuisances that can potentially present However, nowadays, it is easier said than done, especially if the organization deals obstacles in trying to increase profits and market share. with (1) a globalized environment that imposes changes on the tams or organizations communication practices, (2) more foreign clients and global counterparts as well as greater demands from them, (3) diversity in the workplace composition and culture, and (4) the need to communicate successfully in a cross-functional and cross-cultural setup ((Guthrie Jensen Global Training Consultants, 2020). According to Genevieve Hilton, “cultural proficiency doesn't mean memorizing every cultural nuance of every market. It's knowing when to listen, when to ask for help, and In a global environment, the ability to communicate effectively can be a challenge. when—finally—to speak” Multiculturalism refers to the presence of people with several Even when both parties speak the same language, there can still be cultures in a specific setting. It is the coexistence of diverse cultures, where culture misunderstandings due to ethnic and cultural differences (Bernales, Balon and Biligan, includes racial, religious, or cultural groups and is manifested in customary behaviors, 2018). So, in response to globalization, man needs to be culturally aware and cultural assumptions and values, patterns of thinking, and communicative styles sensitive to the manner by which he communicates his ideas to the members of the international community. This unit attempts to help students understand the A. A WORLD OF DIVERSITY importance of determining culturally appropriate ways of communication at school and Parapak (2015) describes our world as a world of diversity. For many centuries, the at work. peoples of the world was separated by mountains and seas. They rarely saw each other; their lives were practically unrelated. They developed and live their own unique Lesson 8 DIVERSITY AND THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY, AND CULTURAL cultures. People in a particular locality developed their own particular way of life, their AWARENESS AND SENSITIVITY own language, their religion and thus became known as a tribe, an ethnic group of a MULTICULTURAL SETTING particular group of people who established a nation of their own. The world [although Bernales, Balon and Biligan (2018) stated that in a global environment, the ability to one world] was and is inhabited by diverse populations, each with their own identity, communicate effectively can be a challenge. Even when both parties speak the same physical, spiritual and cultural uniqueness. Indeed this world has always been a world language, there can still be misunderstandings due to ethnic and cultural differences. of diversity. There is no reason to be ashamed or frightened of diversity. The invention Over the last decade, there have been countless examples from the business sector and development of new technologies have been and continue to be instrumental in that demonstrate how poor communication can lead to poor organizational changing the way we line, the way we communicate, the way we respond to our performance (and public criticisms and outcry). Understanding the impact of environment, the way we express our thoughts, our ideas. In short, technology has globalization on cross-culture communication is imperative for organizations seeking influenced the dynamic development of our cultural identities (Parapak, 1995). to create a competitive advantage in the global market. Recent economic challenges Columbus discovered America, Cook sailed to Australia. New communities were established because of new access through technology. The invention of radio and telephone technology just over 100 years ago made possible inter-cultural satellite, radio and cables, almost any part of the world is reachable by a telephone. communications through long-distance media. Radio and television broadcasting have Or to put in another way, potentially everyone on this planet earth can access a reinforced and globalized our intercultural encounters, communications, telephone, or if he has a computer and a modem, he can access information stored in inter-influence, interdependence and interrelationship. Now we are truly globalized. any computer around the globe. The experts and leaders of the world are talking Through transportation, trade, tourism and telecommunications, we can access a about superhighways of information, the global intelligent information infrastructure global market; we can meet with almost anyone on this planet earth; we have the which could be creating a totally new world not a global village, but a global intelligent facilities to instantly see and follow any event around the world (Parapak, 1995). In community, a global brain (Parapak, 1995 as cited in Bernales, Balon and Biligan, some ways technology has united the world and mankind. But technology has not 2018). The superhighway of information of global network of intelligence, allows us eliminated our diversity. now to globally share information, communicate instantly and work together to develop robust and sustainable economic progress, promote democracy suitable to our The same may be said about communicating locally – meaning here in the different societies, improve our environment, healthcare and education and ultimately Philippines, and communicating with other Filipinos. Like the globe, ours is a diverse realize a prosperous and just world society. country, but global communications have made our country a small city of intelligence. Distance is no longer relevant to our way of life. We, now, obtain, process, store, Global high-tech communications facilities also help to work together as nations, transmit and utilize information at the speed of light. With modern communications, we exchange ideas and nurture friendships which transcend the barriers of nations, enhance our competitiveness, we accelerate our national development, we modernize mountains and seas. Today, our globe is circled by superhighways of optical fiber and integrate our economy and our society, we improve our national efficiency and cable systems providing almost an unlimited bandwidth of information transmission. productivity, we strive for equitable distribution of our development, we eliminate Most of our major offices and some homes are linked with optical fiber systems giving isolation of remote and rural areas, we attract capital inflow for infrastructural us access to global multimedia services, visual, intelligent and personal services. development. These facilities give an almost unlimited choice of information and entertainment to those who have access. Our sky is loaded with programs and anyone with a receiving However, the efforts to achieve global competitiveness and the sense of national system has an unlimited choice of programs. Yes, through communications, the global identity has not eliminated distinctive regional cultures, but rather aroused a sense of world is now filled with information and entertainment that potentially have an impact pride in the diversity which is a source of the rich Philippine cultural heritage. The on our value systems, religious beliefs, business activities, taste in and choice of Philippines is an archipelagic country with 7,641 islands, of which, about 2,000 are entertainment. inhabited. More than 175 ethno-linguistic groups comprise our population, the majority of whose languages are Austronesian in origin. More diverse that our country is our Asian neighbor, Indonesia, with 17,508 islands, with more than 300 ethnic groups, each with its own language, but much can be learned from the Indonesian experience. Local communication means data transferred directly from the gateway to bluz DK, As Parapak (1995) said: without going through the Particle cloud. Local communication can be used for a lot of tasks that don't require the cloud. Multicultural education refers to any form of education or teaching that incorporates the histories, texts, values, beliefs, and perspectives of people from different cultural backgrounds The study of global communication is an interdisciplinary field focusing on global communication, or the ways that people connect, share, relate and mobilize across geographic, political, The challenge is: How do we use diversity for our benefit and for the enrichment of our economic, social and cultural divides. lives? C. COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES B. THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY Communicating across cultures is challenging. Each culture has set rules that its More than fifty (50) years ago, McLuhan anticipated the arrival of a global village members take for granted. Few of us are aware of our own cultural biases because where everyone on this planet earth could feel himself to be a citizen of a village. cultural imprinting is begun at a very early age. And while some of culture‘s McLuhan's vision was inspired by the tremendous development of radio and television knowledge, rules, beliefs, values, phobias, and anxieties are taught explicitly, most of broadcasting. The development of global satellite transmission and broadcasting in the information is absorbed subconsciously. The challenge for multinational some ways realized the dream of McLuhan. Technological development, however, has kept on accelerating, especially during the last twenty five (25) years. Now, through communication has never been greater. Worldwide business organizations have cultural sensitivity doesn’t mean that you must be an expert in each culture’s values. It discovered that intercultural communication is a subject importance not just simply means that you’re willing to ask honest questions, seek understanding, and because of increased globalization, but also because their domestic workforce is demonstrate empathy rather than judging those around you. It also means that, when growing more and more diverse. you knowingly enter a space in which there will be cultural differences at play, you do a bit of homework beforehand and avoid knee-jerk reactions or jumping to Intercultural communication - is a discipline that studies communication across conclusions. Sherman (2018) observes that communicating in a diverse, multicultural different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes environment can be awkward. For example, someone might make a sweeping and the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally appear within inappropriate generalization to a coworker about what "his people" are like, causing an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, discord. More subtle problems can involve the differences in how people from different ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense it seeks to understand how people cultures communicate. from different countries and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them. A gesture that is acceptable in one culture might be meaningless or offensive in another. What’s considered the "normal" space between two people standing and CULTURAL AWARENESS AND SENSITIVITY talking is different in different societies. In some cultures, criticizing or correcting your Cultural awareness means knowing that there are multiple different cultures- based on boss openly is much less acceptable than it is in the United States. religion, ethnicity, nationality and other factors – that have different attitudes and outlooks. Cultural sensitivity involves accepting those differences without insisting your The following guidelines adapted from (https://www.coloradoedinitiative.org) helps you own is better, or that everyone should do it your way. Cultural-sensitivity skills are exhibit cultural awareness and sensitivity in words and in deeds. sometimes called cultural competence, or the ability to work alongside people with different cultural attitudes and behaviors and to do so effectively (Sherman, 2018). 1. View human difference as positive and a cause for celebration; 2. Have a clear sense of your own ethnic, cultural, a racial identity; According to Dabbah (2018) cultural sensitivity is being aware that cultural differences 3. Be aware that in order to learn about others, you need to understand and be and similarities between people exist without assigning them a value – positive or prepared to share your own culture; negative, better or worse, right or wrong. It simply means that you are aware that people are not all the same and that you recognize that your culture is no better than 4. Be aware of your own discomfort when you encounter differences in race, color, any other culture. A challenge, if you ask the author, for members of dominant religion, sexual orientation, language, and ethnicity; cultures. In life and work environments we frequently face situations where there is a 5. Be aware of the assumptions that you hold about people of cultures different from dominant and a secondary culture. For instance, in the U.S. the European American is your own; the dominant culture whereas Hispanic, African American and Chinese cultures are all 6. Be aware of stereotypes as they arise and develop personal strategies for reducing secondary. Cultural sensitivity implies that both groups understand and respect each the harm that they cause; other’s characteristics. This is always a challenge, and even more so in large corporations where the dominant culture is the one that employees are expected to 7. Be aware of how your cultural perspective influences your judgments about what adopt. appropriate, normal, or superior behaviors, values and communication styles are; 8. Accept that in cross-cultural situations, there can be uncertainty, and that In addition, Dabbah (2017) stated that “the idea behind cultural sensitivity is very uncertainty can make you anxious. It can also mean that you do not respond quickly straightforward. Cultural sensitivity refers to a set of skills that allows you to learn and take the time needed to get more information; about and understand people whose cultural background is not the same as yours.” But what does that really mean? Essentially, it means that, as you go about your daily 9. Take any opportunity to put yourself in places where you can learn about life, you operate with the awareness that cultural differences between yourself and the differences and create relationships; and people you meet exist without assigning them a value. You see our differences as a 10. Understand that you will likely be perceived as a person with power and racial positive thing, and don’t consider one culture better or worse, right or wrong. She privilege (or the opposite), and that you may not be seen as unbiased or as an ally. continued to say that this is often easier said than done. With increasingly diverse populations living together in the same communities, it’s not always possible to Lesson 9 WORLD ENGLISHES intimately understand the backgrounds of those we’re interacting with. But having WHAT IS WORLD ENGLISHES? The rise of English is a remarkable success story. When Julius Caesar landed in Britain nearly 2,000 years ago, English did not exist. Five hundred years later, Englisc, incomprehensible to modern ears, was probably spoken by about as few people as currently speak Cherokee – and with about as little influence. Nearly a thousand years later, at the end of the 16 th century, when William Shakespeare was in his prime, English was the native speech of between 5 and 7 million Englishmen, and it was in McArthur’s model of World Standard English (From McArthur 1987:11) the words of a contemporary, “a small reatch, it stretceth no further than this iland of ours, naie not there over all.” Four hundred years later the contrast is extraordinary. A. THE ORIGIN OF WORLD ENGLISHES 1965 Linguist Braj Kachru (1932-2016) published his first journal article, entitled “The Between 1600 and the present, in armies, navies, companies and expeditions, the Indianness in Indian English.” In the article, he lays the theoretical groundwork for the speakers of English--including Scottish, Irish, Welsh, American and many idea of World Englishes by interpreting how English is nativized in India, delineating more--travelled into every corner of the globe, carrying their language and culture. some of its unique sociological and cultural aspects, and showing that “Indian English” Today English is used by at least 700 million people, and barely half of those speak it is a unique variety of English which is neither an American or British English. as a mother tongue. Some estimates have put that figure closer to 1 billion. English at 1984 Kachru formally introduces the term “World Englishes” at the Teachers of English the end of the 20th Century is more widely spoken and written than any other to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) Conference along with the global profile of language ever has been. It has become the language of the planet, the first truly English. Later, he proposes the three concentric circles model. Both papers are global language (Chicago Tribune, 2018). subsequently published. Kachru's three concentric circle models. Image c/o Wikimedia Commons (Creative Commons 4.0 License). As such, the term World Englishes refers to the differences in the English language that emerge as it is used in various contexts across the world. Scholars of World The inner circle refers to the countries where English is used as the primary language, Englishes identify the varieties of English used in different sociolinguistic contexts, such as the USA, Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia. The outer/middle analyzing their history, background, function, and influence (Purdue University, n.d.). circle denotes those countries where English usage has some colonial history. This Since language develops to fulfil the needs of the societies that use them, it has includes nations such as India, Bangladesh, Ghana, Kenya, Malaysia, Nigeria, transformed to multiple varieties in response to the diverse social needs, cultures and Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and Zambia. The expanding geographies of the people. The Purdue Writing Lab mentioned that while there is no circle includes countries where English is spoken but where it does not necessarily single way for a new variety of English to emerge, its development can generally be have a colonial history or primary/official language status. This includes nations such described as a process of adaptation. A certain group of speakers take a familiar as China, Japan, South Korea, Egypt, Nepal, Indonesia, Israel, Korea, Saudi Arabia, variety of English and adapt the features of that variety to suit the needs of their social Taiwan, USSR, and Zimbabwe. Any country where English is regularly spoken (even context (Purdue University, n.d.). For example, a store selling alcoholic beverages is in limited contexts—e.g., for international business) that does not fall under the first called a “liquor store” in American English, whereas it is called an “off-licence” in two categories is considered to be in the expanding circle. The boundaries between British English. The latter term derives from British law, which distinguishes between outer and expanding circles can be blurred as the users of English in any of these businesses licensed to sell alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises and specific countries may fluctuate because of the demographic shifts, economic those licensed for consumption at the point of sale (i.e., bars and pubs). motivations, and language education policy. Kachru argues that it is important to view each variety of English in its own historical, political, sociolinguistic, and literary Such variations do not occur in terms of word choice only. They happen also in terms contexts. This concentric circle model does not only show the widespread use of of spelling, pronunciation, sentence structure, accent, and meaning. As new linguistic English across the world, but also emphasizes “the concept of pluralism, linguistic adaptations accumulate over time, a distinct variety of English eventually emerges. heterogeneity, cultural diversity and the different theoretical and methodological World Englishes scholars use a range of different criteria to recognize a new English foundations for teaching and research in English” (1984, p. 26). Kachru also defines variant as an established World English. These include the sociolinguistic context of its the quality of “nativeness” in World Englishes “in terms of both its functional domains use, its range of functional domains, and the ease with which new speakers can and range, and its depth in social penetration and resultant acculturation” (1997, p. become acculturated to it, among other criteria. 68). A community acquires “native” English-speaking status as it uses English in broader a greater number of societal contexts. This process, however, is shaped by the historical role of English in the community (e.g., as the language of a colonizing force). It is this interaction between functionality and history that leads to the idiolect, or an accent; it is a term which encompasses all of those ideas. nativization of English in a particular society or population group. Consequently, Today, “variety” is an academic term used for any kind of language production, Kachru argues, the English language belongs not only to its native speakers but also whether to its various non-native users throughout the world. viewed as being determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our own 1992 inimitable individual characteristics. Larry E. Smith contributes a chapter titled, “Spread of English and Issues of How do new English varieties develop? Intelligibility” to The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures, edited by Braj B. Kachru. In non-English-speaking regions, English tends to emerge initially as an import from Smith, in this chapter, mentions that since the global spread of English has been very an rapid by historical standards, not all these English varieties will necessarily be English-speaking region. This can occur for many reasons, including intelligible to each other. Thus, he argues that the idea of English’s “intelligibility” migration/diaspora, should be thought of as a matter of its ability to be understood by a speaker and colonization, the adoption of new technology, and the proliferation of entertainment like listener within the same speech community, rather than its degree to be understood movies. solely by native speakers of English. He also proposes the following three terms to However, local languages, cultures, values, and perceptions toward English can also understand the interaction between speaker and listener: 1) intelligibility influence (word/utterance recognition), 2) comprehensibility (word/utterance meaning, or the development and spread of the new language. It may, for instance, initially take “locutionary force”), and 3) interpretability (meaning behind word/utterance, root in just “illocutionary force”). one particular domain of society, like the education or media spheres. Gradually, however, it B. WORLD ENGLISHES: VARIATIONS, DEVELOPMENT, AND FUNCTION tends to spread into other domains as a dialect (or even as a new variety of English) Here are some common ideas required to understand the frameworks of new varieties and starts of English taken from Purdue Writing Lab: What counts as a “new” English The evolving at a societal level. answer to this question depends on the standards used to differentiate one set of Chambers (1995) provides two basic causes for any language variations: naturalistic English-speaking practices from another. Most scholars are careful to distinguish and between the notions of language and dialect. While Melchers and Shaw (2003) note socially-constructed explanations. Chambers argues that the underlying cause of that this distinction is not clear-cut, languages are generally autonomous, whereas sociolinguistic variation is the human instinct to establish and maintain social identity dialects are heteronomous. In other words, one can say that X is a dialect of language (p. Y or that language Y has the dialects X and Z, but never that Y is a language of dialect 250).Therefore, the recognition of “new varieties” of English has not historically rested X. This is a useful distinction, though it is contentious in borderline cases (p. 11). on Another difference offered by Melchers and Shaw (2003) is that dialects, in contrast linguistic criteria alone. For instance, in addition to a distinctive vocabulary and accent, with languages, are mutually intelligible. While dialects are typically spoken and do important defining features of new varieties also include a historical tradition, creative not, like languages, have a codified written form, some regional/social or nonstandard writing, dialects are frequently reflected in writing. Dialects are also said to be used only in and the existence of reference works of various kinds. certain “domains,” whereas languages show maximal variation or “elaboration of The World Englishes initiative in recognizing and describing the new Englishes of the function” (p. 12). Caribbean, Africa, and Asia has been party motivated by a consideration of the local linguistic In order to avoid making the notoriously difficult dialect/language distinction, some “facts,” and partly by the desire to creatively remodel and reconstruct discursive linguists prefer a more neutral term, “variety,” which covers both concepts and is not practices. The tainted through popular usage. The concept of “varieties” is very useful, as “variety” in notion of “varieties” in this context is similarly dynamic, as new contexts, new realities, the singular is a neutral label applied to many different types of language use. and the According to Kachru et al. (2006), the phrase “varieties of English” suggests the origins and traditions of the metalanguage have the potential to assist our own heteronomy of such varieties to the common core of conceptualizations and theorizations of this branch of linguistics (Kachru et al., 2006, English. Bauer (2002) argues that we can use “variety” to mean a language, a dialect, p. 308). an Variation in World Englishes can thus potentially be found (and can potentially begin) “English in Mongolia” (Roger Cohen, 2005) in all “English in Turkey” (Seran Dogncay-Aktuna and Zeynep Kiziltepe, 2005) domains of language: i.e., spelling, phonetics/phonology, morphology, syntax, the “English in Russia” (Irina P. Ustinova, 2005) lexicon These sociolinguistic profiles focus on the local context and highlight how English has (vocabulary), and discourse. been How do new English varieties function? used in different domains of that context, viewing these usages through the different As each setting is shaped by local cultural and social values, local norms of use perspectives of the functional framework. For instance, in Japan, English serves a develop variety of consistent with these values. These norms specify what, when, where, and how functions. Some Japanese people use English words and phrases for professional something can purposes, be said at all linguistic levels, from the phonological to the pragmatic (Berns, 2009). while others use it to identify themselves as modern, Western, or sophisticated. Any variety Similarly, in of English works similarly in any particular context, which means the varieties of Nepal, English functions (mostly) as a primary language in schools, though English is English function not an locally based on their local norms and values. official language in the country. To observe the functions of any variety of English, scholars have provided a heuristic C. STANDARD ENGLISH: WHAT IT ISN’T called 1. Standard English is not a language the functional framework (later termed “sociolinguistic profile”). This framework, Standard English is often referred to as “the standard language”. It is clear, however, adopted by that Standard English is not “a language” in any meaningful sense of this term. Berns (1990 and originally proposed by Kachru (1981), helps researchers understand Standard English English, whatever it is, is less than a language, since it is only one variety of usage in any particular context. English among many. Standard English may be the most important variety of English According to the framework, there are four categories that explain the distinctive uses in of all sorts of ways: it is the variety normally used in writing, especially printing; it is the English language in any particular context: variety associated with the education system in all the English-speaking countries of the regulative function (for administrative and legal purposes), the the instrumental function (status of a language as a medium of instruction), world, and is therefore the variety generally spoken by those who are often referred to the interpersonal function (to serve as a link language and to symbolize prestige, as elitism, and modernity), and “educated people”; and it is the variety taught to non-native learners. But most native the imaginative/innovative function (literary creation). speakers of English in the world are native speakers of some nonstandard variety of Berns (1990) mentions that this sociolinguistic profile highlights the salient features of the use language, and English, like other Ausbau languages (see Kloss, 1967), can be and users in a particular context and serves as a basis for comparison of these described features in a as consisting of an autonomous standardized variety together with all the nonstandard range of contexts (native as well as non-native). Comparison of this type is varieties which are heteronomous with respect to it, i.e. dependent on it (Chambers instrumental in and understanding the characteristics that distinguish one context from another. Trudgill, 1997). Standard English is thus not the English language but simply one There are multiple sociolinguistic profiles published already based on Berns’ (1990) variety functional framework. The following are just a few examples of profile articles of it. This much is uncontroversial. published in World Englishes, a leading journal in the field: Standard English is not an accent. “English in Colombia: A sociolinguistic profile” (Gloria Valez-Rendon, 2003) There is one further point about Standard English on which most linguists, or at least “English in a multilingual Algeria” (Kamal Belmihoub, 2018) British linguists, do appear to agree, which is that Standard English has nothing to do “English in Costa Rica” (Jorge Aguilar-Sanchez, 2005) with pronunciation. This point becomes even clearer if we adopt an international perspective: Standard English speakers can be found in all native English-speaking B: -ou (e.g. colour, behaviour, mould) A: -o (e.g. color, behavior, mold countries, and it goes without saying that they speak Standard English with different, non-(RP) accents depending on whether they come from Scotland or the USA or New Zealand or wherever. B: re (e.g. metre, fibre, centre A: -er (e.g. meter, fiber, center) 3. Standard English is not a style. People usually associate Standard English to vocabulary associated with formal B: -y- (e.g. tyre) A:-i- (e.g. tire varieties of the English Language. However, if we characterize styles as varieties of language viewed in relation to formality, then we can simply look at style as varieties of Vocabulary Differences language which can be ranged on a continuum from very formal to very informal. The Americans and the British also have some words that differ from each other. The All the languages of the world appear to demonstrate some degree of stylistic table below lists some of the everyday objects that have different names, depending differentiation in this sense, reflecting the wide range of social relationships and social on what form of English you are using. situations found, to a greater or lesser extent, in all human societies. 4. Standard English is not a register. British English American English We use the term register in the sense of a variety of language determined by topic, subject matter or activity, such as the register of mathematics, the register of medicine trousers pants etc. D. BRITISH ENGLISH VS AMERICAN ENGLISH Spelling Differences British and American English have some spelling differences. The common ones are Grammar Differences presented in the table below. Aside from spelling and vocabulary, there are certain grammar differences between British and American English. For instance, in American English, collective nouns are British English American English considered singular (e.g. The band is playing). In contrast, collective nouns can be either singular B: oe-/-ae- (e.g. anaemia, diarrhoea, A: -e- (e.g. anemia, diarrhea, or plural encyclopaedia) encyclopedia in British English, although the plural form is most often used (e.g. The band are playing). B: -t (e.g. burnt, dreamt, leapt) A: -ed (e.g. burned, dreamed, leaped The British are also more likely to use formal speech, such as ‘shall’, whereas B: -ence (e.g. defence, offence, licence) A: -ense (defense, offense, license) Americans favour the more informal ‘will’ or ‘should’. Americans, however, continue to use ‘gotten’ as the past participle of ‘get’, which the B: -ell- (e.g. cancelled, jeweller, A: -el- (e.g. canceled, jeweler, British marvellous) marvelous) have long since dropped in favour of ‘got’. ‘Needn’t’, which is commonly used in British English, is rarely, if at all used in : -ise (e.g. appetiser, familiarise, A: -ize (e.g. appetizer, familiarize, American organise) organize) English. In its place is ‘don’t need to’. In British English, ‘at’ is the preposition in relation to time and place. However, in B:-l- (e.g. enrol, fulfil, skilful) A: -ll- (e.g. enroll, fulfill, skillfull) American English, ‘on’ is used instead of the former and ‘in’ for the latte B: -ogue (e.g. analogue, monologue, A: -og (e.g. analog, monolog, catalog)A: catalogue) *Note that American English also on 10 GENDER SENSITIVE LANGUAGE AND POLITICAL CORRECTNESS recognizes words spelled with –ogue GENDER SENSITIVITY Gender sensitivity refers to the aim of understanding and taking account of the societal and cultural factors involved in gender-based exclusion and discrimination in the most diverse spheres of public and private life. It focuses mainly on instances of structural disadvantage in the positions and roles of women (Šribar, R., 2015). Gender-sensitive language is the realization of gender equality in written and spoken language. Gender equality in language is attained when women and mean addressed in language as persons of equal value, dignity, integrity and respect Avoiding sex- and gender-bias discrimination starts with language, as the systematic use of gender-bias terminology influences attitudes and expectations and could, in the mind of the reader or listener, relegate women to the background or help perpetuate a stereotyped view of women’s and men’s roles. There are a number of different strategies that can be used to express gender relationships with accuracy, such as avoiding, to the greatest possible extent, the use of language that refers to explicitly or implicitly to only one gender, and ensuring, through inclusionary alternatives and according to each language’s characteristics, the use of gender-sensitive and inclusive language. Examples of gender-neutral words 1. Ancestors, forebears (instead of forefathers) 2. Artificial, manufactured (instead of man-made) 3. Average/ ordinary person (instead of common man) 4. Chair, chairperson (instead of chairman) 5. Courteous, cultured (instead of ladylike) 6. First-year student (instead of freshman) 7. Flight attendant (instead of steward, stewardess) 8. Human resources (instead of manpower) 9. Legislator, representative (instead of congressman) 10. Mail carrier, letter carrier, postal worker (instead of mailman, postman) 11. People, human beings (instead of mankind) 12. Person, individual (instead of man) 13. Police officer (instead of policeman) 14. Solidarity (instead of brotherhood) 15. To operate, to cover, to staff (instead of to man) Gender Sensitive Language in Personal Titles 90