Hinduism Lesson 5 - PDF

**DHARMIC RELIGIONS** One major commonality of dharmic religions is that they all emerged from the vast subcontinent of India, a land of complexity and diversity in terms of people, culture, practices, customs, and traditions. These religions include Hinduism and the two branches of Buddhism, the...

**DHARMIC RELIGIONS** One major commonality of dharmic religions is that they all emerged from the vast subcontinent of India, a land of complexity and diversity in terms of people, culture, practices, customs, and traditions. These religions include Hinduism and the two branches of Buddhism, the Theravada and Mahayana schools of thought. Central to their fundamental teachings are the belief in the dharma with each religion having their own special meaning for the term. Interestingly, the word dharma has no exact and specific translation in the western languages. For the Hindus, it could mean an individual's appropriate behavior or duty to be fulfilled in observance of a custom or law. For the Buddhists, it could mean universal law and order, or the Buddha's teaching itself. The unique character of each dharmic religion fascinates a great multitude of faithful followers all over the world. With its one billion adherents, most notably in India, Hinduism is the third world's largest religion. On the other hand, Buddhism has a very strong following in Asian countries, most especially in East and Southeast Asia. This chapter will enable you to study the origins of these great religions, their fundamental teachings, the many challenges they confront at present, and the relevance of these religions in modern times. **LESSON 5** **Hinduism** Objectives 1. Understand the beliefs of Hinduism. 2. Identify the names of the major Hindu deities as well as their corresponding functions or powers. 3. Explain: the core teaching of Hinduism is the attainment of liberation in the identification of Atman and Brahman through the Four Yoga. 4. Simulate a particular yoga and write a reflection paper on your insights on Hinduism. Hinduism is the world's third largest religion with around 15% of the entire population practicing the Hindu faith. Hindu followers in India comprise the major bulk with almost 80% of the country's population adhering to the religion. Other Asian countries with considerable Hindu faithful include Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (15 million), and Indonesia (3.9 million in Bali). There are also substantial number of Hindus in Mauritius, Guyana, Fiji, Bhutan, Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, and Sri Lanka. Hinduism was never a missionary religion unlike Christianity (Brown 1975). With the changing times, however, there have been proselytizing activities by Hindu missionaries in some Western cities.  Three other religions that sprung in India have their origins in Hinduism. Around sixth century B.C.E., Jainism and Buddhism appeared to challenge traditional Indian beliefs and practices. In the fifteenth century C.E., Sikhism arose that featured Hindu and Islamic influences. Hinduism Lord Shiva Spiritual illustration of Holy Peace MOTIVATIONAL ACTIVITY Hinduism is also known for its belief in different gods and goddesses. Draw a Hindu god or goddess. Write a four-sentence description of your chosen Hindu god or goddess and explain why you selected that god or goddess. [**HINDUISMS SYMBOL**.] The Om or Aum is the most universal of Hindu symbols and its sound is used in meditation. In Hinduism, the word "Om" is the first syllable in any prayer. More specifically, Om is used to symbolizing the universe and the ultimate reality. Some people say that this symbol represents the three aspects of God: The Brahma (A), the Vishny (U) and the Shiva (M). **[HISTORICAL BACKGROUND]** Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all world religions. While the most active religions of the modern times may have started around the sixth century B.C.E. onward, elements and themes of Hindu belief may have begun around the third millennium B.C.E. In addition, unlike other major religions, Hinduism had no one identifiable founder (Hopfe 1983). The term Hindu originated from the Persian word hindu (in Sanskrit sindhu) which means "river." It also refers to the people of the Indus Valley--- the Indians (Bowker 1997). The name Hinduism was given in the nineteenth century to describe the wide array of belief systems in India. Hinduism was originally known as "Arya Dharma" or the "Aryan Way." As early as 3000 B.C.E., there were already thriving civilizations in India, such as those discovered in the ancient Punjab city of Harappa and in Mohenjo-Daro along the Indus. However, we know very little about the belief system of these early people (Brown 1975). Historically, the foundations of Hinduism may have originated from the customs of the early peoples of the Indus valley around 2500 B.C.E. to 1500 B.C.E., in the more advanced culture of the Dravidians, and from the Aryans who invaded northwest India around 1500 B.C.E. (Bowker 1997). In the 1920s, archaeological excavations in the two pre-Aryan cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro revealed that the natives already had a flourishing civilization with their agricultural cities characterized by well-planned streets with drainage systems. Unfortunately, despite having a written language, it has not yet been deciphered. As a result, vital information concerning the pre-Aryan life and religious beliefs has been elusive. Our knowledge of pre-Aryan belief can be seen from the numerous statues and amulets recovered by archaeologists. Images of fertility gods and goddesses are noticeable from these artefacts while some figures appear in the lotus position which was later absorbed by yoga Hinduism and other sects. Later elements of Hinduism may have taken shape from the practices of pre-Aryan people who were already civilized city dwellers (Hopfe 1983). Between 1750 B.C.E. and 1200 B.C.E., Aryan conquerors moved to the Indus Valley and brought with them their own set of beliefs that eventually mingled with the religion of the natives. Classical Hinduism resulted in the amalgamation of their faiths. Around sixth century B.C.E., they began to settle into cities while local leaders started organizing small kingdoms for themselves (Hopfe 1983). Aryans brought with them their set of beliefs based on oral texts known as Vedas. This Vedic literature, however, was chiefly composed at the time the Aryans had already settled in India and blended with the natives. Admittedly, there is much difficulty in identifying elements in the Vedas that are genuinely pre-Aryan or Aryan influenced. However, certain fundamental assumptions about the Aryan religion can be stated here. Firstly, the Aryans brought with them a polytheistic religion similar to that of other Indo-European peoples. The sun, the moon and storms, are personified in reference to the pantheon of gods and goddesses worshipped by the Aryans. Secondly, sacrifice was the principal form of worship to the Aryan gods. Offerings to gods include animals and dairy products performed on altars in open spaces. Since Aryans were nomadic, they had no temples (Hopfe 1983). In general, Hinduism has pre-Aryan and Aryan elements that date back to ancient times.  **[SACRED SCRIPTURES]** The sacred texts of Hinduism have been principally passed down throughout generations by way of music, recitation, dance, and drama. Sanskrit has been the language of the earliest writings (Coogan 2005). The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized into two classes, the shruti and smriti. **SHRUTI** Shruti literally means "that which is heard." They are regarded as eternal truths that were passed orally until the beginning of the present age wherein there came the need to write them down (Bowker 1997). The four collections of texts of the Vedas form the shruti and are considered primary sources and the most authoritative texts of the Hindu faith. Other writings that form part of shruti include the *Samhitas, Brahmanas, Upanishads*, and a few *Sutras.* **Vedas** The four basic Vedic books, which are sacrificial hymns compiled from an earlier oral tradition, are composed of *Rig-veda, Sama-veda, Yajur-veda*, and *Atharva-veda*. The word *Veda* means "knowledge" or "sacred lore." The *Vedas* are the earliest known Sanskrit literature from the Brahmanic period and oldest scriptures of Hinduism. Scholars disagree as to when the Vedas were first written. The earliest hymns may have been written around 2000 B.C.E. or before the arrival of the Aryans in the Indus Valley area. They may also have been written down between 1500 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E. Ascertaining the exact period is difficult because these books may have been composed and passed orally for so many generations before they were first written down and eventually completed. In the great epic Mahabharata, Brahma was said to have created the *Vedas.* Among the four *Vedas*, the *Rig-Veda* is the most important and oldest book that dates to around 1500 B.C.E. to 1200 B.C.E. Apart from being the oldest work of literature in an Indo-European language, it is also the oldest living religious literature of the world (Parrinder 1971). The book is a collection of over a thousand hymns and more than thousand verses dedicated to the Aryan pantheon of gods. Table 8.1 lists some of the names of these deities. Gods and Goddesses Personifications or Attributes -------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Indra leader of the devas or gods; the lord of heaven in Hinduism; god of rain and thunderstorms Agri god of fire; messenger of the gods Adityas sun-gods Mitra deity for honesty, friendship, contracts, and meetings Varuna god of the water; god of law of the underwater world Ushas deity of dawns Savitr solar deity Rudra deity of wind or storm Pushan solar deity; god of meeting Brihaspati diety and religion Dyaus Pita sky god; father sky Prithvi mother earth Surya chief solar deity; the sun Vayu lord of the winds Apas Water Parjanya thunder and rain Table 4.1 Names of Indian Gods and Goddesses Derived from Ancient History to the Present, Geoffrey Parrinder (ed.), 1971, pp. 200-204 *Yajur-Veda* or the "knowledge of rites" is the second book. Composed between 1200 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E., this book is a compilation of materials recited during rituals and sacrifices to deities. The third book is *Sama-Veda* or the "knowledge of chants." Dating back almost the same time as the *Yajur-Veda*, this book is a collection of verses from the basic hymns recited by priests during sacrifices. Lastly, the fourth book is *Atharva-Veda* or "knowledge given by the sage Atharva" that date back around 1500 B.C.E. to 1000 B.C.E. This book contains rituals used in homes and popular prayers to gods. Seldom used in solemn ceremonies unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharva-Veda contains numerous spells and incantations for medicinal purposes and magical aids to victory in battle among others (Parrinder 1971). Each Vedas consists of four main parts, the *Mantras, Brahmanas, Aranyakas,* and *Upanishads*. *Mantras* are hymns and chants for praising god. *Brahmanas* are explanations of the Mantras with detailed descriptions of the sacrificial ceremonies related to them. *Aranyakas* are meditations that explicate their meaning. *Upanishads* or secret teachings transcend rituals to elucidate the nature of the universe and human's connectedness to it. The many teachings embedded in the Upanishads are called Vedanta, and these are teeming with spiritual truths (Brown 1987). **Upanishads** Forming the fourth part of the Vedas, the term *Upanishad* literally translates as "sitting down near" or "sitting close to" as it implies listening intently to the mystic teachings of a spiritual teacher who has fully understood the universal truths. It could also mean "brahma-knowledge" whereby ignorance is eliminated. Within these amazing collections of writings that were transmitted orally through generations, one can find early philosophical statements that form the basis for all later Hindu philosophy. The great Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo described the *Upanishads* as the "supreme work of the Indian mind." Varying in length from one page to over fifty pages, all fundamental teachings and concepts about Hinduism are found in these profound treatises---such as karma (action), samsara (reincarnation), moksha (nirvana), atman (soul), and Brahman (Absolute Almighty). Of the two hundred Upanishads, fourteen of these are considered principal writings. The earliest of the Upanishads may have originated in the ninth century B.C.E. while the most recent around the sixth century B.C.E. (Hopfe 1983). **SHMRITI** *Smrit*i literally means "that which has been remembered." These writings serve to reinforce *shruti* and are interpreted by sages and scholars alike. Most of these texts are sectarian in nature and considered of lesser importance compared to shruti, such as stories and legends, codes of conduct for the society, and guidebooks for worship. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, which contains the philosophical poem Bhagavad Gita, are part of *shmriti.* These are national epics of India and considered to be the sacred texts of the masses where they draw their values and ideals (Brown 1975). **Ramayana** The *Ramayana*, translated as the "Story of Rama" or "Rama's Journey," is a Sanskrit epic poem written by the poet Valmiki consisting of 24,000 verses in seven books and 500 cantos. This great epic was written between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. Central to the story is Rama, a prince and later portrayed as avatar or incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, who was born in Ayodhya. Rama was exiled by his father on the eve of his coronation. Meanwhile, in the forest, Rama's consort, Sita, was abducted by Ravana, the demon-king of Lanka. Rama struggles mightily to win Sita back. After a battle, Rama kills Ravana and reunites again with Sita. Returning to Ayodhya, they are crowned with Rama portrayed as the ideal king. Rama and Sita are the epitome of perfect man and woman. Meanwhile, Ravana symbolizes ambition and greed resulting in cosmic disorder and degradation of women and family (Bowker 1997). Presently, this story is danced out and acted in Southeast Asia where Hindu influence is observable. Most characters are popular in Indonesia, Thailand, and Cambodia (Coogan 2005). **Mahabharata** Another major Sanskrit literature of old India is Mahabharata which is composed of around one hundred thousand verses making it the world's longest poem. Written around 500 B.C.E., this magnificent work is attributed to the author Vyasa who is also considered to be the scribe of the Vedas. The Mahabharata tells of a great struggle among the descendants of a king called Bharata, a name used by many Indians to mean "India" (Coogan 2005). Two families are at war, the Pandavas who represent good and the Kauravas who embody evil (Brown 1975). The hundred Kaurava brothers try to cheat their five cousins, the Pandavas, out of their share of the kingdom. As intense battle ensued, every kingdom had to take sides. With the help of Krishna, another incarnation of Vishnu, the Pandavas emerged triumphant but lost all their sons and closest kin in battle (Coogan 2005). With about 100,000 couplets and 1.8 million words in total, this poem is about four times longer than the Ramayana, eight times longer than the Iliad and the Odyssey put together, and fifteen times longer than the Bible. Along with the Bible and the Quran, the Mahabharata ranks in importance among the sacred writings of various world religions. It is an epic vision of the human condition, such as intrigue, romance, duplicity, moral collapse, dishonour, and lamentations (Kolanad 1994). **Bhagavad Gita** A celebrated episode within the *Mahabharata* is the *Bhagavad Gita* (or simply Gita) which is translated as "the Lord's Song." It is believed to have been written between the second century B.C.E. and third century C.E. Considered as one of the holiest books by the Hindus, the Gita is a 700-verse narrative of a dialogue between the Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide-cousin Krishna. Just as the war is about to commence at Kurukshetra, Arjuna is troubled at the thought of having to fight his relatives and contemplates his fate and struggles set before him. He then seeks the opinion of his charioteer Krishna who asserts the righteousness of the act while expounding the moral and philosophical consequences of human actions. Their conversations in the battlefield, found between chapters 25 and 42, comprise about eighteen chapters and constitute the *Bhagavad Gita*. The *Gita* instructs any person that one may reach god through devotion, knowledge, or selfless action (Coogan 2005). Humans must do their duty or dharma whatever it may be and whatever results it could produce. The Gita is considered the layman's Upanishads because the difficult teachings of the Upanishads are presented here in a manner that commoners can understand (Brown 1975). **[BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES]** The Hindu faith offers its followers many paths to salvation. They may find liberation from the cycle of life through devotion to one or more gods. Gods and goddesses can be worshipped at their temples. In temples, devotees can pray and offer sacrifices so that they can gain favor from deities and assist them in their struggle for salvation. Bhakti stands for the soul's longing for and clinging to god (Brown 1975). **Devotion to the Trimurti** Central to Hinduism is the *Brahman* who is the ultimate reality, one and undivided (Hopfe 1983). The *Brahman* is often seen in three forms or functions. Called the *Trimurti*, these are creation, preservation, and destruction. These functions are expressed in god forms, namely, *Brahma*, the creator; *Vishnu*, the preserver; and *Shiva*, the destroyer. Though widely respected and recognized as the creator of the universe, Brahma receives the least attention among the trimurti. In fact, only two temples are dedicated to him in India and he has no cult of devotees (Hopfe 1983). He is not worshiped in the same way as other gods because he has done his task and will not come into his own until the next creation of the universe (Bowker 1997). When depicted, *Brahma* has four heads and eight hands. His chief consort is Saraswati, the goddess of science and wisdom. Brahma's vehicle is a swan or goose which symbolizes knowledge. Known as a god of love, benevolence, and forgiveness, *Vishnu's* primary concern is humanity itself. As the preserver, the creation is withdrawn to a seed whenever he sleeps but rises again as he wakes up. He is worshiped in various forms of his incarnations or avatars. Based on mythology, Vishnu has appeared on earth in nine different forms and will come a tenth time to end the present era or *kalpa,* to bring the world to an end, and then recreate it. These manifestations of Vishnu are intended to help humanity with his preserving, restoring, and protecting powers. In Hindu sacred writings, Vishnu is depicted as having four arms and with a dark complexion. (Kolanad 1994). Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune, who is seated on a lotus between two elephants with their trunks raised above her. Both Vishnu and Lakshmi ride the eagle mount or kite Garuda, the symbol of the sky and the sun. The snake in Garuda's claws represents water. As the destroyer and the god of death, destruction, and disease, Shiva is the third in the Trimurti. His functions are many. He is also god of dance, vegetable, animal, and human reproduction (Hopfe 1983). In Hindu belief, death is but a prelude to birth, hence, the god of death is also the god often revered through the *lingam*, the male energy surrounded by the *yoni*, the female source of energy (Bowker 1997). In mythology, he is always described as having a constantly erect penis and sexually alert (Hopfe 1983). Equally popular as Shiva are his many consorts that express the differing elements of his character. Perhaps the most terrifying of his consorts is *Kali* depicted as wearing a garland of human skulls, tearing the flesh of sacrificed victims, and drinking blood. Although wild and violent, *Kali* is frequently the subject of intense devotion. *Kali* is also the ferocious form of consorts Durga and Parvati. Durga is a powerful goddess created from the combined forces of the anger of several gods. Meanwhile, Parvati, the daughter of the sacred mountain Himalaya and the goddess of love, fertility, and devotion, is the most modest, conservative, and benign of Shiva's consorts (Bowker 1997). Her sons with Shiva include Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity revered as the remover of obstacles, and Kartikeya, the Hindu god of war. **Routes to Moksha** From the *Upanishads* one may find the three principal and inter-related doctrines within the Indian religion. Firstly, every soul die and is reborn anew in new form (this cycle is called *samsara).* Second, one's deeds have an effect in this or a future life. Lastly, one may escape the weary round of death and birth (Parrinder 1971). Within every human is an eternal soul or *atman* that is being reborn many times and in various forms in accordance with the moral law or *karma* (Bowker 1997). A soul may escape the cycle of rebirth and attain *moksha*. This particular liberation can be achieved through the four *yogas* that involve a system of practices aimed at producing spiritual enlightenment. The word *yoga* is derived from the root word *yuj* which translates as "to yoke" or "to join." The philosophy of yoga was developed by the sage Patanjali who lived in the second century B.C.E. He is considered as the "father of modern yoga" as he codified the teachings of yoga in his Yoga Sutra (Hopfe 1983). Table 4.2 lists down the four yogas with their corresponding practices. The Four Yogas Practices ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Jnana Yoga (The Way of Knowledge) The path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection, and contemplation Bhakti Yoga (The Way of Love) The path of devotion, emotion, love, compassion, and service to God and others Karma Yoga (The Way of Work) The path of action, service to others, mindfulness, and remembering the levels of our being while fulfilling our actions or karma in the world Raja Yoga (The Way of Meditation) The path of meditation that directly deals with the encountering and transcending thoughts of the mind Table 4.2 The Four Yogas Source: Four Paths of Yoga: Jnana, Bhakti, Karma, Raja. Traditional Yoga and Meditation of the Himalayan Masters. http://www.swamij.com/four-paths-of-yoga.htm For all Hindus, there are four desirable goals of life or *purushartha*. These are *dharma* (appropriate behavior), *artha* (the pursuit of legitimate worldly success), *kama* (the pursuit of legitimate pleasure), and *moksha* (release from rebirth). The terminal stage involves the liberation from the bonds of flesh and the limitations of death-bound life (Brown 1975). By faJithfully performing duties in social and family life, this involves one person pursuing *artha* or appropriate worldly prosperity and material well-being. A person must also rightfully satisfy the demand for enjoyment and pleasure or *kama*. In all goals, one must be guided by righteousness or dharma toward achieving moksha. A person who achieves *moksha* while in life is a free soul or *jivan-mukta*. **[WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES]** Hindu scriptures state that there are 330 million gods or devas (Kolanad 1994). These include manifestations of natural phenomena, evil forces, and even illnesses. Others are venerated humans or town deities. Hindu worship or puja involves images (*murtis*), prayers (*mantras*), and diagrams of the universe (*yantras*) (Bowker 1997). Integral to Hindu worship are the sacred images and temples believed to house and represent the deities. These images can be revered in homes or temples with a host of intermediary priests, holy men, and religious teachers (Kolanad 1994). However, most Hindus worship individually involving mantras or vibrating sounds that summon the deity and the prasad or gift offerings (Bowker 1997). Vital to Hindu worship is *darshan* that pertaining to seeing and being in the presence of deity. In temples, ceremonies may be in the form of offering a flame, milk, or honey, and even reciting chants and music. While worship may be undertaken any day of the week, Thursday is the most opportune day. Hindus celebrate several festivals that are based on the Hindu calendar and often related to seasonal changes. Main festivals include *Holi, Diwali*, and *Dusserah*. The *Diwali* or "Festival of Lights" is India's biggest and most important holiday of the year held in October or November that is like the Christmas holiday of the Christians. Indians light outside their homes to symbolize the inner light that safeguards the people from evil forces. Meanwhile, there are also many local and regional festivals, such as harvest and deity festivals, marked by colourful processions and performances. Table 4.3 lists down several festivals celebrated by Hindus in a year. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Month | Name of Festival | Significance | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | January | Lohri | Celebrated in the | | | | Punjab, this marks | | | | the end of winter | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | February | Pongal-Sankranti | A feast held in south | | | | India to celebrate | | | | the rice harvest | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | March | Holi | The national | | | | celebration of spring | | | | and the New Year | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | March | Shivaratri | A national honoring | | | | of Shiva; Worshippers | | | | fast during the day, | | | | and an | | | | | | | | all-night vigil is | | | | held at Shiva temples | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | April | Sri Vaishnavas | An honoring of Vishnu | | | | and his consort Sri, | | | | celebrated in Madras | | | | at the beginning of | | | | the hot season; | | | | Images of Vishnu are | | | | taken from the | | | | temples to the | | | | seashore | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | May | Rathyatra | The birthday of Lord | | | | Jagannath, celebrated | | | | with chariots in Puri | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | August | Janmashtami | The birthday of | | | | Krishna, celebrated | | | | nationally; | | | | Worshippers fast | | | | during the day and | | | | break the fast in the | | | | evening, following a | | | | special puja, or | | | | worship | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | September | Dusserah | A celebration of the | | | | triumph of good over | | | | evil, in honor of | | | | Durga or Rama | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | September | Ganesh Chaturthi | The birthday of | | | | Ganesh, celebrated | | | | nationally throughout | | | | India; Huge images of | | | | Ganesh are paraded | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | October | Diwali | A national | | | | celebration in honor | | | | of Rama and his | | | | consort | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Source: World Religions, John Bowker, 1997, p. 39. Pilgrimages are also undertaken by Hindus throughout India to visit the sacred shrines of their deities. These include rivers, mountains, and temples. The city of Varanasi, also called Benares, is the most important and sacred pilgrimage site in India and is considered as the home of Shiva. Many people come and live in the city until they die to manifest their exceptional devotion. Other popular sites include Kurukshetra (the place of the great war in *Mahabharata*), Ayodhya (the old capital of Rama), and Mathura (Krishna's birthplace). **[SUBDIVISIONS]** Followers of Hinduism vary in their set of beliefs and practices, including reverence to a particular god. Presently, there are four principal denominations within the Hindu faith. These are *Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishavism,* and *Smartism*. It is important to note, however, that while these gods have different names, Hindus all worship one supreme being. Each sect has its own religious leaders, sacred texts, schools, and temples. While there is indeed variety and key differences among sects, adherents of these denominations share the pervading beliefs concerning *karma, dharma, reincarnation*, and other key Hindu concepts and philosophy. **Shaivism** Lord Shiva, the Compassionate One, is God for the Saivites. Followers of Shaivism value self-discipline and philosophy. They worship in temples and practice yoga. **Shaktism** The Goddess Shakti is supreme for Shaktas. She is the divine mother and assumes many forms, be it a gentle one or a fierce deity. Believers use chants, magic, and yoga to summon cosmic forces. **Vaishnavism** Lord Vishnu is God for the Vaishnavites, especially in his incarnations Krishna and Rama. Adherents have multitudes of saints, temples, and sacred texts. **Smartism** For the Smartas, devotees are left to choose their own deity in one of six manifestations, namely, Ganesha, Siva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Skanda. Smartas are known as liberals as they embrace all major Hindu gods. **[SELECTED ISSUES]** Hinduism continues to be the religion of almost 80% of the Indian people. While mostly comprised of Hindu followers, India is a secular state that remains neutral in issues involving religious convictions and practices of its citizenry. All Indians can follow and propagate their own set of beliefs. Being a country with the largest adherents of Hinduism, India is presently facing numerous challenges that are religious in character, some of which are below. **Hinduism and Women** Even though the *Manusmriti* or the "Laws of Manu" states that women should be honored in Hindu society, women have always been considered inferior to men in almost all aspects of life. A woman\'s life revolves around the men in her life, to be taken care of by her father in childhood, by her husband in married life, and by her sons upon old age. Thus, women are relegated to performing household chores and are expected to become loyal to their husbands, even after their husbands die. In traditional society, women are expected to perform sati or suttee wherein widowed women are expected to jump on the funeral pyre of their husbands to prove their loyalty and help save the soul of their husbands in the afterlife. Although sati was already demolished by the British in India, there are still cases of sati being reported in modern times. **Caste System** The caste system is one major distinguishing feature of Indian culture that still affects modern-day society. A system of social class composed of the *Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,* and *Shudras,* opportunities are based upon family origin. One person belongs to a caste by being born to parents of that caste (Hopfe 1983). This has been an issue of distinctive concern for the reformers of the caste system. While full-blown divisions are relatively a modern development, the caste system began to divide into thousands of castes that are sometimes based on occupations. A person's diet, vocation, and residence are dictated by the caste where he or she belongs. There can be more than 3,000 separate castes in India (Hopfe 1983). However, the most deplorable group are those persons that do not belong to any group---those that are disparagingly called as "outcasts" or "untouchables." Also known as *dalits*, they are highly ostracized in society. They perform the most menial of jobs, such as street sweepers, latrine cleaners, and handlers of the dead. These jobs receive the lowest wages and have the most appalling living conditions (Hopfe 1983). The teachings of Hinduism may have justified the status of the outcastes. Their present condition may have been caused by their accumulated karma from the past. By fulfilling their duties and accepting their *dharma*, they may be born to a better caste in their next lives. Despite the negative backlash on the caste system, India has been receptive in enacting legislation aimed at eradicating inherent social evils. For example, untouchability has been banned and the caste system is no longer rigid. The Indian constitution has if it is unlawful to discriminate against lower castes. Lower caste members are now being elected to key government positions, including Kocherii R. Narayanan, a *dalit* who became the tenth president of India from 1997 to 2002. **Mahatma Gandhi** Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's views on the caste system changed in the last years of his life. In the 1920's he had held that every Hindu "must follow the hereditary profession" (varnashrama) and that "prohibition of intermarriage" between people of different varnas was "necessary for the rapid evolution of the soul." By 1945, Gandhi's position against the fourfold varna order had become more emphatic. He discarded some previous formulations, including those on hereditary occupations. In a new foreword to (new edition of) Varnavyavastha, he invited the reader "to discard anything in the book which may appear to him incompatible". The changes in the views of Mahatma Gandhi were arguably due to the influence of two opponents of the caste system whose intellectual integrity he held in high esteem -- BR Ambedkar and Goparaju Ramachandra Rao (Gora). His view of marriage between people of different religious affiliations also underwent a similar change. Regardless of the transition, his views have been criticized by various scholars. In an essay published in 2014, author and activist Arundhati Roy slammed Mahatma Gandhi for his "casteist tendencies" and defense of the varna system. Citing an essay by Gandhi in which he advises manual scavengers to convert urine and night soil into manure as proof of his condescending and patronizing attitude towards Dalits and how such an attitude only helped reinforce caste hierarchies, Roy argued that institutions named after him be renamed. Documented evidence, including Gandhi's own writings in the 1920s and '30s, would indeed be considered casteist. But the documented fact also is that the latter-day Gandhi gradually became a social revolutionist advocating inter-caste marriage, especially between Brahmins and "Harijans" in order to dismantle the caste system "root and branch," and publicly acknowledging that "when all become casteless, monopoly of occupations would go." Gandhi devoted much of his last years of his life-fighting caste as well as religious prejudice. He was a reformer and most definitely not a caste revivalist within the Hindu religion. His effort was in keeping with his philosophy of nonviolence and bringing societal transformation without creating animosity or hatred between groups. Goparaju Ramachandra Rao had a huge influence on Mahatma Gandhi when it came to theism and atheism. Photo: Atheist Centre. The more important thing that we miss out when we try to selectively pick out his writings and claim that Gandhi was casteist is that, Gandhi strongly believed many times that he found himself in the wrong and therefore changed his mind, and most importantly that all his writings should be destroyed along with his body when it was cremated, because there was a risk that people would conform mistakenly to something he had written. The constant criticism on Gandhi's campaigns against untouchability by many a critic is that it would go only when caste was destroyed. It is not generally known that Gandhi moved to this position in the mid-1940s. It is also generally understood that while Gandhi opposed untouchability and criticized caste, he defended 'varna vyavastha', the fourfold varna order. This is not entirely correct over the entire Gandhian trajectory. Gandhi's own criticism of the varna order, which evolved over time, has consistently and emphatically been overlooked by activists and scholars alike. **[Few common questions which people who are unfamiliar with Hinduism tend to ask.]** 1. **Who is the founder of Hinduism?** Hinduism has no founder or prophet. According to the Vedas, it originated from God himself at the beginning of creation and propagated by Brahma and the various Manus who originated from him as the progenitors of human races (manavas) upon earth. The Vedas proclaim that God himself practices the eternal Dharma as the creator, preserver and destroyer of the worlds to set an example for gods, humans and others to practice it in their respective spheres. The set of functions which he performs as the Creator and which we are supposed to follow upon earth are collectively known as Dharma (obligatory duties). The knowledge of Hinduism is partly derived from God and his numerous manifestations and partly from the insight and awareness of numerous gurus, saints, philosophers and religious teachers. The tradition continues even today. Hinduism is essentially a man-made religion with its roots in heaven and its branches in human wisdom **2. Why does Hinduism have so many Gods?** Hindus all believe in one Supreme God who created the universe. He is all-pervasive. He created many Gods, highly advanced spiritual beings, to be His helpers. **3. Are Hindus idol worshipers?** Hindus do not worship a stone or metal \"idol \" as God. We worship God through the image. We invoke the presence of God from the higher, unseen worlds, into the image so that we can commune with Him and receive His blessings **4. Why Do Hindus worship the cow?** No. Hindus do not consider the cow to be a god and they do not worship it. Hindus, however, are vegetarians and they consider the cow to be a sacred symbol of life that should be protected and revered. In the Vedas, the oldest of the Hindu scriptures, the cow is associated with Aditi, the mother of all the gods. **5. What are their methods of worship?** The methods of worship in Hinduism range from a simple offer of prayer (prarthana) and domestic worship (puja) to more complex  rituals such as sacrifices (yajnas and homas), austerities (dikshas and tapas) and penances (vratas). The Bhagavadgita assures that whatever you offer to God with love and devotion, be it a leaf or flower or food, he wholeheartedly accepts it and reciprocates your love. The intention behind the worship is equally important. Devotees may worship God or gods to seek boons and fulfill their desires. They may worship, seeking the welfare of others or the world. They may also do it for liberation or purely out of love for God. The last ones are considered the most excellent of all methods of worship. Srimad Bhagavatam lists nine methods of devotional worship namely sravana (hearing), kirtana (singing), smarana (remembering), padasevana (serving at the feet), archana (ritual worship), vandana (salutation), dasya (service), sakhya (friendliness), and atma-nivedana (surrender). The most popular form of worship is the domestic worships (puja) in which the deity is worshipped with devotion, treating him or her  like a divine guest **6. Do Hindus believe in sin and suffering?** Yes, Hindus do believe in sin and the suffering. They arise from our actions which are in turn caused by our inherent nature. However, Hindus do not believe that God acts as the judge in the human drama. We are responsible for our actions. Therefore, whatever happens to us, it is caused by us only. God remains a witness to all the drama. He intervenes only if we earn his love through surrender and devotion. In the Hindu worldview, the world is a trap for the souls and filed with many impurities. The mind and body are also impure.  The impurities are responsible for our delusion, egoism and ignorance, Because of them. we engage in desire-ridden actions, which in turn lead to sin and suffering. However, one can overcome this problem by taking refuge in God or Self. They are eternally pure. Through right knowledge, right living, truthfulness, austerities, self-effort, good karma, sacrificial actions, selfless service and divine grace one can overcome the impurities of the mind and body to achieve oneness with God and reach the immortal heaven. **7. Why do Hindus cremate their dead?** Yajna is a traditional Hindu, sacrificial ritual, in which devotees offer sacrificial food to gods. Agni, the fire god acts as the intermediary. He accepts the food from the worshippers and distributes it among the gods. The sacrificial ritual is central to Hindu way of life. The sacrificial model is followed by Hindus in every aspect of life. Idealistically, for Hindus the Vedic sacrifice exemplifies the ideal conduct which everyone is obliged to follow. According to it, people must live their lives as a sacrifice in the service of God and others. They must serve gods, humans, pious people, animals, ancestors, etc., through selfless actions and daily sacrifices. By serving them selflessly and virtuously, a person escapes from suffering and the cycle of births and deaths. The Vedas suggest that death is the last sacrifice (antyeshti) in the life of a person. In that sacrifice, one has to give up the body, the last possession, as an offering to Kala, the god of Death. Since all material offerings are made to Agni, who also acts as the purifier, the body is also offered to him only during the cremation. After the ceremony, his or her family members collect the ashes and offer them to one or more Pancha-bhutas (the five elements) namely, earth, water, fire, air and space. **8. What is karma?** Karma is the universal principle of cause and effect. Our actions, both good and bad, come back to us in the future, helping us to learn from life\'s lessons and become better people. **9. Do Hindus believe in reincarnation?** Yes, we believe the soul is immortal and takes birth time and time again. Through this process, we have experiences, learn lessons and evolve spiritually. Finally we graduate from physical birth. **10. Are Hindus forbidden to eat meat?** Hindus teach vegetarianism as a way to live with a minimum of hurt to other beings. But in today\'s world not all Hindus are vegetarians. **11. Why do many Hindus wear a dot near the middle of their forehead?** The dot worn on the forehead is a religious symbol. It represents divine sight and shows that one is a Hindu. For women, it is also a beauty mark. **Summary** - Hinduism is oftentimes considered as the oldest and most complex of all world religions. - Hinduism has no single founder, no specific theological system, and no single sacred text. - The concept of dharma is closely linked to the Hindu religion. It is the power that preserves the society. - The sacred writings of the Hindus are categorized into shruti and smriti. Shruti literally means "that which is heard" and are regarded as eternal truths that were passed orally. The four books of Vedas are part of the shruti. Meanwhile, smriti literally means "that which has been remembered" and these are writings that serve to reinforce shruti. - Fundamental to Hindu teachings are the doctrines of samsara (the cycle of rebirth) and karma (the universal law of causality). - Apart from recognizing a vast assortment of Indian deities, the Hindus believe in the trimurti (trinity) composed of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Integral to Hindu worship are the sacred images and temples believed to house and represent the deities.