Lesson 1.docx

North Dakota Studies Lesson 1: Changing Landscapes Section 1: Introduction 1. **Geology and Time are closely related** a. Layers of sediment captured changes in climate, water levels, and life over billions of years. b. These changes shaped North Dakota's modern landscape and...

North Dakota Studies Lesson 1: Changing Landscapes Section 1: Introduction 1. **Geology and Time are closely related** a. Layers of sediment captured changes in climate, water levels, and life over billions of years. b. These changes shaped North Dakota's modern landscape and economy. 2. **Divisions of Geological Time:** c. Has divisions that can be compared to modern calendars based on movement of sun and earth through space: years, months, weeks, and days 3. Geological time Units: d. **Eras** (largest periods) i. Made up of several periods e. **Periods** (subdivisions of Eras) ii. Made up of several epochs f. **Epochs** (subdivisions of Periods) iii. Made up of formations g. Measured by layers of rock buried deep under the surface, rather than movement of the earth. 4. **Eras and Stratigraphic Columns** h. Four eras that are characterized by geological changes brought about by wind, water, earthquakes or volcanoes and by development of plant and animal life i. Stratigraphic columns are layers that show the eras and cover : iv. Earth's history: \~5 billion years. v. North Dakota: \~600 million years. j. Knowledge of geology is evolving with new discoveries. 5. **North Dakota\'s Geological Record** k. **Paleozoic Era:** Begins about 570 million years ago. vi. Seas flowed and drained, forming the Williston Basin. vii. Life expanded, evolved, and became extinct. l. **Mesozoic Era and Cenozoic Era**. viii. Mammals and grasses became dominant. ix. Climate changes led to the current pattern of cold winters and warm summers. 6. **Paleontological Research** m. Geologists and paleontologists read the layers to learn about the landscape and non-human life forms n. Knowledge based on 200 years of scientific research. o. Continually evolving with new discoveries. p. Modern names used to define areas of ancient studies. Section 2: Special Terms Here are summaries for the terms you provided: 1. **BPE (Before the Present Era)**: - Used in paleontology to denote time before the present, especially for events that occurred millions of years ago when there were no human records. Also interchangeable with \"mya\" (millions of years ago) or \"ybp\" (years before present). 2. **Core sample**: - Cylindrical slices of Earth\'s layers obtained by drilling below the surface. Used in geological studies to understand Earth\'s history and resource potential, such as in the oil industry. 3. **Coteau**: - French for \"little hills,\" referring to an area east of the Missouri River characterized by small lakes and ponds formed by glaciers. 4. **Dinosaurs**: - Extinct reptiles from the Mesozoic Era, some walking upright on two legs and others on four. Most dinosaurs disappeared about 65 million years ago; birds are considered their modern descendants. 5. **Erratics**: - Large rocks left on North Dakota prairies by glaciers, too heavy to be moved by water or wind. They are called erratics because they are not native to North Dakota. 6. **Esker**: - Ridge formed by gravel and sand deposited by streams flowing under or through glaciers. Found in glaciated areas, like the Dahlen Esker in North Dakota. 7. **Extinction**: - Complete disappearance of a species from Earth, either globally or in a specific region. 8. **Formation**: - Distinct layer of rock visible in cliffs or river banks, named after nearby permanent features. Represents specific geological time periods. 9. **Geologist**: - Scientist who studies Earth\'s rocks, minerals, and geological processes, specializing in various aspects of geology. 10. **Glacier**: - Large mass of ice formed from compacted snow that moves slowly and reshapes the land underneath it. 11. **Glacial till**: - Sediment left behind as glaciers retreat, varying in size from clay particles to boulders. 12. **Iridium**: - Rare mineral found abundantly in asteroids and meteors, associated with the K-T boundary layer linked to dinosaur extinction. 13. **K-T Boundary**: - Geological boundary marking the end of the Cretaceous Period and the start of the Tertiary Period, associated with mass extinctions, including dinosaurs. 14. **Lake Agassiz**: - Large freshwater lake formed during the Ice Age, leaving behind sediment that shaped the Red River valley. 15. **Lignite**: - Type of coal found in North Dakota, lower in heat production compared to other types of coal. 16. **Mammals**: - Animals that give birth to live young and nurse them with milk until they can feed themselves. 17. **Moraine**: - Hill of gravel or rock deposited by a melting glacier. 18. **Paleontologist**: - Scientist who studies fossilized plants and animals from ancient times. 19. **Sediment**: - Material deposited by wind, water, or ice. 20. **Sedimentary rock**: - Rock formed from compressed layers of sediment over geologic time. 21. **Strata**: - Layers of sediment or rock beneath Earth\'s surface. 22. **Stratigraphy**: - Study and visualization of geological layers and their relationships. Topic 2: Geology Section 1: Formations Easy As Cake 1. Making Formations: a. Layers of sand, silt, rock, and other substances were laid down in North Dakota over millions of years. b. Some layers were brought by water eroding the surfaces of the mountains to the west. c. Other layers were brought by wind. d. Each of these layers has a name which represents a time period. e. Each layer has its own story. i. Origins: Where it came from. ii. Conditions: The environmental conditions under which it was formed. iii. Contents: The plant and animal life trapped within its layers. 2. Stratigraphic: f. Charts to view orders of stratigraphy iv. From latin word "Stratum" refers to something spread or laid down v. "Graph" is a Latin word that means a way of writing g. Stratigraphic Columns: vi. Shows layers of North Dakota's surface vii. Some layers are exposed and some deeply buried 1. Learn about them through core sampling. viii. Layers refer to a time period, millions of years 2. Each has own climate, plant, and animal life 3. Epochs, Periods, Eras h. Dated in terms of millions of years i. Can change as geologists accumulate more information j. Determined through scientific study ix. Carbon dating- less than a million years old 3. Can\'t be used on rocks because minerals replaced carbon x. Potassium-argon dating 4. Found in volcanic ash and can date materials as old as 4.5 billion years 4. Layers of North Dakota k. Can think of them as a layered cake xi. Layers laid down over time but bites are removed from the layers 5. River flowing under forming an inland sea 6. Shift in earth's crust to drop one area 7. Layers eroded by wind, water, ice, or cut away. 5. **Rock Layers Deposited During Paleocene Epoch (60-50 million years BPE)** l. Bullion Creek and Sentinel Butte formations xii. Bullion Creek: 8. Bright yellow and tan 9. Older and lower formation xiii. Sentinel Butte: 10. Grayer and browner 11. Fossilized animals not dinosaurs xiv. Additional layers contributing to colors: 12. HT Butte clinker (hardened red rock from burned coal) 13. Bentonite clay (light bluish-gray) xv. Both have fossilized animals that weren't dinosaurs and petrified trees Section 2: The Williston Basin - **Williston Basin** - Geographical Overview: - Area: Over 300,000 square miles, covering parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Montana, South Dakota, and the largest portion in North Dakota. - Geological Formation: - Sedimentary Layers: - Depth: Over 16,000 feet deep near the center (near present-day Williston). - Eastern Edge: About 300 feet deep in eastern North Dakota. - Resources: - Major sources of coal, oil, and natural gas. - Formation History: - Shallow seas covered the area periodically, depositing organic materials that became oil and coal. - Formation of Coal: - Peat Formation: - Dense layers of decaying vegetation formed peat in wetlands. - Slow decay due to periodic flooding preventing oxygen. - Transformation into lignite coal under pressure over time. - **Petroleum Formation** - Lignite Coal: - Soft coal with high moisture content, found in the east-central zone. - Extracted from the Fort Union formation of the Paleocene (65 to 55 million years BPE). - Oil Formation Process: - About 500 million years ago, folding of Earth\'s crust created anticlines. - Oil Formation: - Plankton and microscopic organisms in inland seas died and fell to the sea floor. - Covered by sediments over millions of years, creating pressure and heat. - Transformation into oil and gas. - Migration: - Oil and gas moved through rock spaces. - Accumulation in anticlines like the Nesson anticline near Williston, North Dakota. Section 3: The Missouri and the Red River **General Characteristics of North Dakota Rivers** 1. Youthful in geological terms, shallow river beds prone to flooding. 2. Historical Flow Directions: a. Pre-glaciation: All rivers flowed north, draining into Hudson Bay. b. Current Flow: i. Northward: Red River, Mouse (Souris) River, Sheyenne River. ii. Southward: Missouri River, James River (to the Mississippi River). **Missouri River** 3. Pre-Glacial Path: c. Flowed northeast past Turtle Lake and Mercer. d. Ancient lake beds: Turtle Lake, Lake Williams, Brush Lake. 4. Glacial Impact: e. Glaciers redirected the river southward. f. Deposited silt, gravel, sand, and boulders filled the northbound river bed. 5. Formation of Current Path: g. Glacier blockage near modern-day Riverdale formed a large lake. h. Overflow carved new path toward Stanton, then Bismarck, eventually southward. **Valleys and Landforms** 6. Missouri River Valleys: i. Some valleys up to six miles wide, gently sloping edges. j. Oriented east-west, older than north-south valleys. k. Formation of Lake Sakakawea in 1950 in one of the broad valleys. **Red River** 7. Historical Path: l. Initially through narrow, steep valley, about 10 miles east of current location. m. Originally flowed north, like the modern Red River. 8. Geological Changes: n. Erosion through shale to reach granite of Canadian Shield, pushing westward. o. Glacial Impact: iii. Glaciers eroded steep valley walls. iv. Deposited sediment during retreat, flattening the valley. 9. Lake Agassiz: p. Formed by glacial meltwater along a 60-mile wide path. q. Present-day Red River flows down the center of the ancient lake bed. Section 4: The Ice Age **Glaciation Events** 1. Definition: a. Periods when ice advanced from polar caps to usually warmer lands. 2. Last Ice Age: b. Began 2.6 million years ago, multiple glaciation periods during the Pleistocene Epoch. c. Glaciers were thousands of feet thick, composed of half ice and half debris. d. Debris included rocks, gravel, and sand carried and deposited by glaciers, forming glacial till. **Types of Glacial Deposits** 1. Erratics: a. Individual rocks left behind by glaciers. 2. Moraines: b. Hills of sand, gravel, and rocks left by glaciers. 3. Eskers: c. Ridges formed by sediment carried beneath glaciers\' meltwater rivers. 4. **Knife River Flint** d. Origin: i. Possibly brought by glaciers to North Dakota. ii. Used for tools and weapons by people since around 10,000 years ago. iii. Traded extensively, reaching as far as Illinois and Ohio by 600 A.D. **Last Ice Age in North Dakota** 1. Duration: a. 25,000 to 12,000 years ago. b. Ice sheets up to 400 feet thick covered three-fourths of the state. 2. Glacial Impact: c. Created rolling hills and formed Glacial Lake Agassiz covering 110,000 square miles. d. Lake drained about 8,500 years ago, leaving sediment that formed the Red River Valley. **Topographical Changes** 1. Coteau du Missouri: a. Moraines and lakes east of the Missouri River. b. Important bird migration area (Central Flyway). 2. Fossil Discoveries: c. Wooly mammoths, mastodons, giant bison, ground sloths, and horses found in glacial deposits. d. Extinction near the end of the Ice Age. **End of the Ice Age** 1. Climate Changes: a. Warming climate allowed human entry into North Dakota. b. Supported forests of spruce and aspen trees, with remaining bogs containing meltwater. Topic 3: Plants and Animals Section 1: Ancient Plants **Early Geological History** 1. Early history: North Dakota was submerged under water with tiny one-celled aquatic plants. a. Warm periods supported tropical plants like palm trees, giant redwoods, and ferns, forming dense forests. 2. **Transition to Grasslands** b. Dominance of grasses today: Grasslands cover most of North Dakota due to semi-arid climate and grazing animals. c. Transition from swampy jungles and forests to grasslands examined through fossil records. 3. **Geological Epochs and Plant Evolution** d. Late Cretaceous Period (about 65 million years BPE): i. Featured tropical plants including ancient sequoias, Katsura trees, horse chestnut trees, and ferns. e. Eocene Epoch (about 35 million years BPE): ii. Warm and wet climate supported ferns, pines, redwoods, maples, birch, palms, sycamores, and willows. f. Oligocene Epoch (about 30 million years BPE): iii. Cooler climate divided forests into coniferous (north) and deciduous (south) types. iv. Tropical species unable to tolerate lower temperatures disappeared from North Dakota. g. Miocene Epoch: v. Rising Rocky Mountains caused a drier climate (rain shadow effect) in North Dakota. vi. Drought-tolerant plants began to dominate. 4. **Fossil Record and Grassland Formation** h. Miocene Epoch (about 20 million years BPE): vii. Debate among scientists about the origin of North Dakota\'s grasslands. viii. Some argue fossil evidence suggests grasslands formed during this epoch. 1. Others suggest grasslands were patchy with wooded valleys supporting browsing animals. 5. **Post-Glacial Changes** i. After the last glacier (about 10,000 years BPE): ix. Climate became drier, leading to the spread of modern grasses like Big Bluestem and prairie flowers. x. Forests diminished, and prairie flora flourished, stabilizing about 4,000 years ago. xi. Climate stability since then has maintained relatively consistent plant species and varieties. Section 2: Soil 1. **Formation of Soil** a. Soil develops from rocks over millions of years, influenced by processes like weathering by wind, water, freezing, and plant roots. b. Glaciers also contribute by grinding rocks and depositing sediment. 2. **Components of Soil** c. Soil is a mixture of sand (gritty), silt (smooth), and clay (sticky), each contributing to its texture. d. Organic matter, formed from decomposed plant material, makes up 5% of soil but plays crucial roles: i. Stabilizes soil against erosion by wind and water. ii. Allows deep root penetration for water and nutrient absorption. iii. Enhances water retention, preventing runoff. 3. **Effect of Climate on Soil** e. Climate influences plant growth, which in turn impacts soil composition. f. Forest soils accumulate leaf litter on the surface, with minimal organic matter reaching deeper layers. g. Grassland soils benefit from dense sod formed by grass roots and organic accumulation (humus) in the upper layer. 4. **Characteristics of Grassland Soil** h. Grasses contribute more nutrients back to the soil compared to forests, enhancing fertility. i. Grasses have extensive root systems (up to six feet deep) that improve soil structure and nutrient availability. 5. **Soil Horizons** j. Soil scientists study soil horizons to understand soil characteristics and fertility: iv. O horizon: Uppermost layer with plant litter and humus. v. A horizon: Topsoil where seeds germinate and roots develop, rich in organic matter. vi. E horizon: Transition zone where minerals leach downward. vii. B horizon: Subsoil with accumulated minerals, lighter in color and less organic matter than topsoil. viii. C horizon (regolith): Layer between soil and bedrock, high in minerals and coarse texture. 6. **Significance of Soil Layers** k. Topsoil (A horizon) is crucial for agriculture due to its fertility and ability to support plant growth. l. Subsoil (B horizon) retains moisture important for plant survival during droughts. **Section 3: Animals** **Introduction to North Dakota\'s Geological History and Ancient Animals** 1. Earth undergoes continuous geological changes, some observable within human lifetimes, others spanning centuries. 2. North Dakota\'s geological formations, climate shifts, plant evolution, and soil changes influence its animal diversity. 3. **Ancient Fauna and Evolution** a. Over 500 million years, North Dakota hosted diverse microscopic organisms in warm seas. b. Vertebrates with backbones evolved, including dinosaurs, lizards, and mammals, adapting to varied environments. 4. **The Impact of the K-T Boundary** c. About 65 million years ago, the K-T boundary marked the end of the dinosaur era and the rise of mammals. d. A massive asteroid impact off Mexico caused climate cooling, leading to plant and animal extinctions globally. e. Geological evidence includes a crater beneath the Yucatan Peninsula and an iridium-rich clay layer at the K-T boundary in North Dakota. 5. **Conclusion** f. The asteroid impact theory explains the mass extinction at the K-T boundary, but ongoing research considers other factors. g. Multiple extinction events shaped Earth\'s biological history, paving the way for mammalian dominance and present-day fauna diversity in North Dakota. **Animals of the Late Cretaceous Period** 1. North Dakota was covered by the Western Interior Seaway, hosting diverse marine and terrestrial life. 2. Marine life included: a. Small creatures like clams, corals, urchins, and lobsters. b. Large predators such as the **Plioplatecarpus** or mosasaur, up to 40 feet long, feeding on fish, other mosasaurs, and the flightless bird **Hesperornis regalis**. c. Giant squids like **Tusoteuthis longa** and predatory fish like **Xiphactinus**, up to 20 feet long. 3. Terrestrial life in the Hell Creek Formation included: d. Large herbivorous dinosaurs: i. **Triceratops**: Defended itself with three large horns, over 25 feet long and weighing more than eight tons. ii. **Edmontosaurus**: A duck-billed dinosaur with a recently discovered specimen named Dakota, revealing well-preserved skin and tail details. e. **Tyrannosaurus rex (T. rex)**: iii. Massive carnivore, up to 40 feet long and 20 feet tall, with a five-foot-long head and teeth capable of exerting immense bite force. iv. Known predator of Edmontosaurs and Triceratops, debated as a predator or scavenger. f. Flying reptiles like **Pteranodon** inhabited the skies, with a wingspan of 20 feet, primarily feeding on fish. 4. **Impact of the K-T Boundary** g. Extinction event around 65 million years ago marked the end of dinosaurs and dominance of reptiles. h. The rise of mammals followed, shaping the future fauna diversity. Animals of the Eocene and Oligocene Epochs 1. **Eocene Epoch (55 to 34 million years ago)** a. North Dakota experienced tropical conditions with dense forests. b. Diverse fauna included: i. **Coryphodon**: Hippopotamus-like, swamp-dwelling mammal. ii. **Eohippus (Hyracotherium)**: Early horse ancestor, small with multiple toes. iii. Global cooling marked the end of the Eocene Epoch. 2. **Oligocene Epoch (33 to 23 million years ago)** c. North Dakota transitioned into a treeless plain with shrubs and grasses. d. Major fauna included: iv. **Thunder Beast (Brontops)**: Large, intimidating plant-eater with bony snout projections. v. **Mesohippus**: Descendant of Eohippus, larger than its predecessor, adapted to browsing leaves. vi. **Poebrotherium**: Early camel ancestor, lacked humps, similar in size to a goat. vii. **Leptomeryx**: Small, antler-less, fast-running deer-like animal. viii. **Saber-toothed cats (Dinictus)**: Predatory with long, serrated canine teeth. ix. **Other species**: 1. **Rabbits (Palaeolagus)**: About 10 inches long. 2. **Tortoises (Stylemys)**: Four-foot-long species. 3. **Sweat bees (Celliforma species)** and **rodents (Eumys species)** were also common. 3. Animals of the Pleistocene Epoch e. **Woolly Mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius)** x. Originated from Asia via the Bering Land Bridge. xi. Reached up to nine feet at the shoulder. xii. Ate grass, roots, and tree bark using their tusks and trunk. xiii. Had heavy, dark brown coats with a fine undercoat for warmth. xiv. Became extinct about 10,000 years ago, coinciding with human presence in North Dakota. f. **Mastodons (Mammut americanum)** xv. Evolved in North America over millions of years. xvi. About 10 feet tall at the shoulder. xvii. Used tusks to tear bark from trees; preferred browsing leaves and bark. xviii. Had long, dark, thick hair coats with a fine undercoat. xix. Lived in boggy areas and became extinct about 10,000 years ago. g. **Bison latifrons** xx. Ancestor of modern bison, larger than today\'s species. xxi. Had horns measuring seven feet from tip to tip. xxii. Lived in small herds and preferred woodland habitats. h. **Ice Age Horses (Equus)** xxiii. Resembled modern horses with a single toe and hard hoof. xxiv. Larger than their ancestors; grazers dependent on grass. xxv. Became extinct in North Dakota and North America by the end of the Ice Age. i. **Saber-Toothed Cat (Smilodon fatalis)** xxvi. A fearsome predator, slightly smaller than a modern lion but heavier. xxvii. Had powerful front legs and seven-inch-long canine teeth. xxviii. Used strong jaws to bite into prey\'s skull, sometimes breaking their canines. xxix. Extinct by the end of the Ice Age. j. **Extinction and Causes** xxx. Larger Ice Age mammals like mastodons and horses became extinct. xxxi. Smaller to medium-sized animals like deer survived. xxxii. Factors contributing to extinction may include climate change and human hunting. Section 4: The Paleontology Laboratory 1. **Role of Paleontologists** a. Paleontologists study fossils to reconstruct ancient ecosystems and understand evolutionary history. b. They carefully document fossil locations and geological layers to date and contextualize fossils. c. Fragile fossils are protected with plaster jackets during excavation to preserve their integrity. 2. **North Dakota\'s Paleontology Laboratory** d. Housed within the State Historical Society, it holds thousands of fossil specimens. e. Fossils include bones, teeth, and fossilized plants captured in rock formations. f. The laboratory is essential for cleaning, identifying, and cataloging fossils. 3. **Excavation and Preservation** g. Fossils are excavated from rock formations and meticulously cleaned in the laboratory. h. Paleontologists analyze bones for identifying features like spinal processes and tooth structures. i. Fragile fossils may require reconstruction or replication for display to protect the originals. 4. **Common Fossil Finds in North Dakota** j. Edmontosaurus and Triceratops fossils are relatively common. k. Tyrannosaurus rex remains are rarer due to fewer discoveries. l. Fossils from the Oligocene Epoch are scarcer due to high erosion rates. 5. **Displaying Fossils** m. Fragile or incomplete fossils are reconstructed or replicated for museum displays. n. Techniques include sculpting missing parts, creating molds, or crafting replicas from lightweight materials. o. Original fossils are preserved while replicas are used for educational and exhibition purposes.