Self And Personality PDF

SELF AND PERSONALITY After reading this chapter, you would be able to: describe the concept of self and learn some ways for self-regulation of behaviour, explain the concept of personality, differentiate between various approaches to the study of personality, develop in...

SELF AND PERSONALITY After reading this chapter, you would be able to: describe the concept of self and learn some ways for self-regulation of behaviour, explain the concept of personality, differentiate between various approaches to the study of personality, develop insight into the development of a healthy personality, and describe some techniques for personality assessment. Introduction Self and Personality Concept of Self Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self Self-esteem, Self-efficacy and Self-regulation Culture and Self Concept of Personality Personality-related Terms (Box 2.1) Major Approaches to the Study of Personality Type Approaches Trait Approaches CONTENTS Five-Factor Model of Personality (Box 2.2) Psychodynamic Approach Behavioural Approach Key Terms Cultural Approach Summary Humanistic Approach Review Questions Who is a Healthy Person? (Box 2.3) Project Ideas Assessment of Personality Weblinks Self-report Measures Pedagogical Hints Projective Techniques Behavioural Analysis 23 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25  Quite often you must have found yourself engaged in knowing and evaluating your own behaviour and that of others. You must have noticed how you react and behave in certain situations in a manner different from others? You may have also often asked questions about your relationships with others. To find an answer to some of these questions, psychologists use the notion of self. Similarly when we ask questions such as why people are different, how they make different meaning of events, and how they feel and react differently in similar situations (i.e. questions relating to Introduction variations in behaviour), the notion of personality comes into play. Both these concepts, i.e. self and personality are intimately related. Self, in fact, lies at the core of personality. The study of self and personality helps us understand not only who we are, but also our uniqueness as well as our similarities with others. By understanding self and personality, we can understand our own as well as others’ behaviour in diverse settings. Several thinkers have analysed the structure and function of self and personality. As a result, we have different theoretical perspectives on self and personality today. This chapter will introduce you to some basic aspects of self and personality. You will also learn some important theoretical approaches to self and personality, and certain methods of personality assessment. SELF AND PERSONALITY CONCEPT OF SELF Self and personality refer to the From your childhood days, you may have characteristic ways in which we define our spent considerable time thinking about existence. They also refer to the ways in who you are, and how you are different which our experiences are organised and from others. By now, you already may have show up in our behaviour. From common developed some ideas about yourself, observation we know that different people although you may not be aware of it. Let hold different ideas about themselves. us try to have some preliminary notion of These ideas represent the self of a person. our self (i.e. who are we?) by completing We also know that different people behave Activity 2.1. in different ways in a given situation, but How easy was it for you to complete the behaviour of a particular person from these sentences? How much time did you one situation to another generally remains take? Perhaps it was not as easy as you fairly stable. Such a relatively stable may have thought at first. While working patter n of behaviour represents the on it, you were describing your ‘self ’. You “personality” of that person. Thus, different are aware of your ‘self’ in the same way as persons seem to possess dif ferent you are aware of various objects in your personalities. These personalities are surrounding environment, such as a chair reflected in the diverse behaviour of or a table in your room. A newly born child persons. has no idea of its self. As a child grows 24 Psychology 2024-25 older, the idea of self emerges and its disclosing her/his personal identity. Social for mation begins. Parents, friends, identity refers to those aspects of a person teachers and other significant persons play that link her/him to a social or cultural a vital role in shaping a child’s ideas about group or are derived from it. When self. Our interaction with other people, our someone says that s/he is a Hindu or a experiences, and the meaning we give to Muslim, a Brahmin or an adivasi or a them, serve as the basis of our self. The North Indian or a South Indian, or structure of self is modifiable in the light something like these, s/he is trying to of our own experiences and the indicate her/his social identity. These experiences we have of other people. This descriptions characterise the way people you will notice if you exchange the list you mentally represent themselves as a person. completed under Activity 2.1 with your Thus, self refers to the totality of an other friends. individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings with regard to herself Activity Understanding the Self or himself. These experiences and ideas 2.1 define the existence of an individual both Please complete the following sentences at the personal and at social levels. starting with “I am”. Time Now............. Self as Subject and Self as Object I am........................................................ If you return to your friends’ descriptions I am........................................................ in Activity 2.1, you will find that they have I am........................................................ described themselves either as an entity I am........................................................ that does something (e.g., I am a dancer) I am........................................................ I am........................................................ or as an entity on which something is done I am........................................................ (e.g., I am one who easily gets hurt). In the I am........................................................ former case, the self is described as a I am........................................................ ‘subject’ (who does something); in the latter I am..................................................... case, the self is described as an ‘object’ Time when you finished..................... (which gets affected). This means that self can be understood Notice what they have done. You will as a subject as well as an object. When you find that they have produced a fairly long say, “I know who I am”, the self is being list of attributes about how they identify described as a ‘knower’ as well as themselves. The attributes they have used something that can be ‘known’. As a for identification tell us about their subject (actor) the self actively engages in personal as well as social or cultural the process of knowing itself. As an object identities. Personal identity refers to those (consequence) the self gets observed and attributes of a person that make her/him comes to be known. This dual status of self different from others. When a person should always be kept in mind. describes herself/himself by telling her/his Kinds of Self name (e.g., I am Sanjana or Karim), or her/ his qualities or characteristics (e.g., I am There are several kinds of self. They get honest or hardworking person), or her/his formed as a result of our interactions with potentialities or capabilities (e.g., I am a our physical and socio-cultural singer or dancer), or her/his beliefs (e.g., environments. The first elements of self I am a believer in God or destiny), s/he is may be noticed when a newborn child cries 25 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 for milk when it is hungry. Although, this more specific level, a person may have a cry is based on reflex, this later on leads very positive view of her/his athletic to development of awareness that ‘I am bravery, but a negative view of her/his hungry’. This biological self in the context academic talents. At an even more specific of socio-cultural environment modifies level, one may have a positive self-concept itself. While you may feel hungry for a about one’s reading ability but a negative chocolate, an Eskimo may not. one about one’s mathematical skills. A distinction is made between ‘personal’ Finding out an individual’s self-concept is and ‘social’ self. The personal self leads to not easy. The most frequently used method an orientation in which one feels primarily involves asking the person about herself/ concerned with oneself. We have talked himself. above how our biological needs lead to the development of a ‘biological self’. But, soon Self-esteem a child’s psychological and social needs in Self-esteem is an important aspect of our the context of her/his environment lead self. As persons we always make some other components of personal self to judgment about our own value or worth. emerge. Emphasis comes to be laid on This value judgment of a person about those aspects of life that relate only to the herself/himself is called self-esteem. Some concer ned person, such as personal people have high self-esteem, whereas freedom, personal responsibility, personal others may have low self-esteem. In order achievement, or personal comforts. The to assess self-esteem we present a variety social self emerges in relation with others of statements to a person, and ask her/ and emphasises such aspects of life as him to indicate the extent to which those cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice, statements are true for her or him. For support or sharing. This self values example, we may ask a child to indicate the family and social relationships. Hence, it extent to which statements such as “I am is also referred to as familial or relational good at homework”, or “I am the one self. usually chosen for the games”, or “I am highly liked by my peers”, are true of her/ COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS him. If a child reports these statements to OF SELF be true for her/him, her/his self-esteem will be high in comparison to someone who Psychologists from all parts of the world says “no”. have shown interest in the study of self. Studies indicate that by the age of 6 to These studies have brought out many 7 years, children seem to have formed self- aspects of our behaviour related to self. As esteem at least in four areas: academic indicated earlier, all of us carry within us competence, social competence, physical/ a sense of who we are and what makes us athletic competence, and physical different from everyone else. We cling to appearance, which become more refined our personal and social identities and feel with age. Our capacity to view ourselves in safe in the knowledge that it remains terms of stable dispositions permits us to stable in our lifetime. combine separate self-evaluations into a The way we perceive ourselves and the general psychological image of ourselves. ideas we hold about our competencies and This is known as an overall sense of self- attributes is also called self-concept. At a esteem. very general level, this view of oneself is, Self-esteem shows a strong relationship overall, either positive or negative. At a with our everyday behaviour. For example, 26 Psychology 2024-25 children with high academic self-esteem stop smoking the moment they decide to perform better in schools than those with do so. Our society, our parents and our low academic self-esteem, and children own positive experiences can help in the with high social self-esteem are more liked development of a strong sense of self- by their peers than those with low social efficacy by presenting positive models self-esteem. On the other hand, children during the formative years of children. with low self-esteem in all areas are often found to display anxiety, depression, and Self-regulation increasing antisocial behaviour. Studies Self-regulation refers to our ability to have shown that war m and positive organise and monitor our own behaviour. parenting helps in the development of high People, who are able to change their self-esteem among children as it allows behaviour according to the demands of the them to know that they are accepted as external environment, are high on self- competent and worthwhile. Children, whose monitoring. parents help or make decisions for them Many situations of life r equir e even when they do not need assistance, resistance to situational pressures and often suffer from low self-esteem. control over ourselves. This becomes possible thr ough what is commonly Self-efficacy known as ‘will power’. As human beings Self-efficacy is another important aspect we can control our behaviour the way we of our self. People differ in the extent to want. We often decide to delay or defer the which they believe they themselves control satisfaction of certain needs. Learning to their life outcomes or the outcomes are delay or defer the gratification of needs is controlled by luck or fate or other called self-control. Self-control plays a situational factors, e.g. passing an key role in the fulfilment of long-term examination. A person who believes that goals. Indian cultural tradition provides s/he has the ability or behaviours required us with certain effective mechanisms (e.g., by a particular situation demonstrates fasting in vrata or roza and non- high self-efficacy. attachment with worldly things) for The notion of self-efficacy is based on developing self-control. Bandura’s social lear ning theory. A number of psychological techniques Bandura’s initial studies showed that of self-control have also been suggested. children and adults learned behaviour by Observation of own behaviour is one of observing and imitating others. People’s them. This provides us with necessary expectations of mastery or achievement information that may be used to change, and their convictions about their own modify, or strengthen certain aspects of effectiveness also determine the types of self. Self-instruction is another important behaviour in which they would engage, as technique. We often instruct ourselves to also the amount of risk they would do something and behave the way we want undertake. A strong sense of self-efficacy to. Such instructions are quite effective in allows people to select, influence, and even self-regulation. Self-reinforcement is the construct the circumstances of their own third technique. This involves rewarding life. People with a strong sense of self- behaviours that have pleasant outcomes. efficacy also feel less fearful. For example, you may go to see a movie Self-efficacy can be developed. People with friends, if you have done well in an with high self-efficacy have been found to examination. These techniques have been 27 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 tried out and found quite effective with members of the group maintain their respect to self-regulation and self-control. individuality. In the Indian culture, the self is generally not separated from one’s own group; rather both remain in a state of CULTURE AND SELF harmonious co-existence. In the Western Several aspects of self seem to be linked culture, on the other hand, they often to the characteristic features of the culture remain at a distance. That is why many in which an individual lives. Analysis of Western cultures are characterised as self carried out in the Indian cultural individualistic, whereas many Asian context reveals a number of important cultures are characterised as collectivistic. features that are distinct from those found in the Western cultural context. CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY The most important distinction between the Indian and the Western views is the The term ‘personality’ often appears in our way the boundary is drawn between the day-to-day discussion. The literal meaning self and the other. In the Western view, this of personality is derived from the Latin boundary appears to be relatively fixed. word persona, the mask used by actors in The Indian view of self, on the other hand, the Roman theatre for changing their facial is characterised by the shifting nature of make-up. After putting on the mask, this boundary. Thus, our self at one audience expected the person to perform moment of time expands to fuse with the a role in a particular manner. It did not, cosmos or include the others. But at the however, mean that the person enacting next moment, it seems to be completely the given role necessarily possessed those withdrawn from it and focused fully on qualities. individual self (e.g., our personal needs or For a layperson, personality generally goals). The Western view seems to hold refers to the physical or exter nal clear dichotomies between self and other, appearance of an individual. For example, man and nature, subjective and objective. when we find someone ‘good-looking’, we The Indian view does not make such clear often assume that the person also has a dichotomies. Figure 2.1 illustrates this charming personality. This notion of relationship. personality is based on super ficial In the Western culture, the self and the impressions, which may not be correct. group exist as two different entities with In psychological terms, personality clearly defined boundaries. Individual refers to our characteristic ways of Fig.2.1 : Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Cultural Perspectives 28 Psychology 2024-25 responding to individuals and situations. or external situational demands. Thus, People can easily describe the way in which personality is adaptive to situations. they respond to various situations. Certain Once we are able to characterise catchwords (e.g., shy, sensitive, quiet, someone’s personality, we can predict concerned, warm, etc.) are often used to how that person will probably behave describe personalities. These words refer to in a variety of circumstances. An different components of personality. In this understanding of personality allows us to sense, personality refers to unique and deal with people in realistic and acceptable relatively stable qualities that characterise ways. For example, if you find a child who an individual’s behaviour across different does not like orders, the most effective way situations over a period of time. to deal with that child will be not to give If you watch closely, you will find that orders, but to present a set of acceptable people do show variations in their alternatives from which the child may behaviour. One is not always cautious or impulsive, shy or friendly. Personality choose. Similarly, a child who has feelings characterises individuals as they appear in of inferiority needs to be treated differently most circumstances. Consistency in from a child who is self-confident. behaviour, thought and emotion of an Several other terms are used to refer to individual across situations and across behavioural characteristics of individuals. time periods characterises her/his Quite often they are used as synonyms of personality. For example, an honest person personality. Some of these terms are given is more likely to remain honest irrespective in Box 2.1 along with their defining of time or situation. However, situational features. You may read them carefully to variations in behaviour do occur as they appreciate how they are different from the help individuals in adapting to their notion of personality. environmental circumstances. In brief, personality is characterised by MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF the following features: PERSONALITY 1. It has both physical and psychological components. Psychologists interested in the study of 2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is personality, try to answer certain questions fairly unique in a given individual. about the nature and origin of individual 3. Its main features do not easily change differences in personality. You may have with time. observed that two children in the same 4. It is dynamic in the sense that some of family develop dramatically dif ferent its features may change due to internal personalities. Not only they look physically Personality-related Terms Box 2.1 Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting. Trait: Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving. Disposition: Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way. Character: The overall pattern of regularly occurring behaviour. Habit: Over learned modes of behaving. Values: Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to achieve. 29 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 different, but they also behave differently of external rewards or threats available in in different situations. These observations a particular situation. The cross- often generate curiosity and force us to situational consistency of traits is found to ask: “Why is it that some people react be quite low. The compelling influence of differently in a given situation than others situations can be noted by observing do? Why is it that some people enjoy people’s behaviour in places like a market, adventurous activities, while others like a courtroom, or a place of worship. reading, watching television or playing cards? Are these differences stable all Type Approaches through one’s life, or are they just short- As we explained above, personality types lived and situation-specific?” are used to represent and communicate a A number of approaches and theories set of expected behaviours based on have been developed to understand and similarities. Efforts to categorise people explain behavioural differences among into personality types have been made individuals, and behavioural consistencies since ancient times. The Greek physician within an individual. These theories are Hippocrates had proposed a typology of based on different models of human personality based on fluid or humour. He behaviour. Each throws light on some, but classified people into four types (i.e., not all, aspects of personality. sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and Psychologists distinguish between type choleric); each characterised by specific and trait approaches to personality. The behavioural features. type approaches attempts to comprehend In India also, Charak Samhita, a human personality by examining certain famous treatise on Ayurveda, classifies broad patterns in the observed behavioural people into the categories of vata, pitta and characteristics of individuals. Each kapha on the basis of three humoural behavioural pattern refers to one type in elements called tridosha. Each refers to a which individuals are placed in terms of type of temperament, called prakriti (basic the similarity of their behavioural nature) of a person. Apart from this, there characteristics with that pattern. In is also a typology of personality based on contrast, the trait approach focuses on the trigunas, i.e. sattva, rajas, and tamas. the specific psychological attributes along Sattva guna includes attributes like which individuals tend to differ in cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, consistent and stable ways. For example, detachment, discipline, etc. Rajas guna one person may be less shy, whereas includes intensive activity, desire for sense another may be more; or one person may gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for be less friendly, whereas another may be others, and a materialistic mentality, etc. more. Here “shyness” and “friendliness” Tamas guna characterises anger, represent traits along which individuals arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of can be rated in terms of the degree of helplessness, etc. All the three gunas are presence or absence of the concerned present in each and every person in behavioural quality or a trait. The different degrees. The dominance of one or interactional approach holds that the other guna may lead to a particular situational characteristics play an type of behaviour. important role in deter mining our Within psychology, the personality behaviour. People may behave as types given by Sheldon are fairly well- dependent or independent not because of known. Using body build and temperament their internal personality trait, but because as the main basis, Sheldon proposed the 30 Psychology 2024-25 Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and the absence of Type-A traits. This typology Ectomorphic typology. The endomorphs has been further extended. Morris has are fat, soft and round. By temperament suggested a Type-C personality, which is they are relaxed and sociable. The prone to cancer. Individuals characterised mesomorphs have strong musculature, are by this personality ar e cooperative, rectangular with a strong body build. They unassertive and patient. They suppress ar e energetic and courageous. The their negative emotions (e.g., anger), and ectomorphs are thin, long and fragile in show compliance to authority. Mor e body build. They are brainy, artistic and recently, a Type-D personality has been introvert. suggested, which is characterised by Let us r emember that these body proneness to depression. typologies are simple, and have limited use Personality typologies are usually very in predicting behaviour of individuals. They appealing, but are too simplistic. Human are more like stereotypes which people behaviour is highly complex and variable. hold. Assigning people to a particular personality Jung has proposed another important type is difficult. People do not fit into such typology by grouping people into introverts simple categorisation schemes so neatly. and extraverts. This is widely recognised. According to this typology, introverts are Trait Approaches people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw themselves in the face of These theories are mainly concerned with emotional conflicts, and are shy. the description or characterisation of basic Extraverts, on the other hand, are sociable, components of personality. They try to outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow discover the ‘building blocks’ of dealing directly with people, and react to personality. Human beings display a wide stress by trying to lose themselves among range of variations in psychological people and social activity. attributes, yet it is possible to club them In r ecent years, Friedman and into smaller number of personality traits. Rosenman have classified individuals into T rait approach is very similar to our Type-A and Type-B personalities. The two common experience in everyday life. For r esearchers were trying to identify example, when we come to know that a psychosocial risk factors when they person is sociable, we assume that s/he discovered these types. People will not only be cooperative, friendly and characterised by Type-A personality seem helping, but also engage in behaviours that to possess high motivation, lack patience, involve other social components. Thus, feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and trait approach attempts to identify primary feel like being always burdened with work. characteristics of people. A trait is Such people find it difficult to slow down considered as a r elatively enduring and relax. People with Type-A personality attribute or quality on which one are more susceptible to problems like individual differs from another. They hypertension and coronary heart disease include a range of possible behaviours (CHD). The risk of developing CHD with that ar e activated according to the Type-A personality is sometimes even demands of the situation. greater than the risks caused by high blood To summarise, (a) traits are relatively pr essure, high cholesterol levels, or stable over time, (b) they are generally smoking. Opposite to this is the Type-B consistent across situations, and (c) their personality, which can be understood as strengths and combinations vary across 31 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 individuals leading to individual differences situations depends on her/his traits, in personality. although people sharing the same traits A number of psychologists have used might express them in different ways. traits to for mulate their theories of Allport considered traits more like personality. We will discuss some intervening variables that occur between important theories. the stimulus situation and response of the person. This meant that any variation in Allport’s Trait Theory traits would elicit a different response to the same situation. Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of trait approach. He proposed that Cattell: Personality Factors individuals possess a number of traits, which are dynamic in nature. They Raymond Cattell believed that there is a determine behaviour in such a manner common structure on which people differ that an individual approaches different from each other. This structure could be situations with similar plans. The traits determined empirically. He tried to identify integrate stimuli and responses which the primary traits from a huge array of otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued descriptive adjectives found in language. that the words people use to describe He applied a statistical technique, called themselves and others provide a basis for factor analysis, to discover the common understanding human personality. He structures. He found 16 primary or source analysed the words of English language to traits. The source traits are stable, and are look for traits which describe a person. considered as the building blocks of Allport, based on this, categorised traits personality. Besides these, there are also into cardinal, central, and secondary. a number of surface traits that result out Cardinal traits are highly generalised of the interaction of source traits. Cattell dispositions. They indicate the goal around described the source traits in terms of which a person’s entire life seems to opposing tendencies. He developed a test, revolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence called Sixteen Personality Factor and Hitler’s Nazism are examples of Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment cardinal traits. Such traits often get of personality. This test is widely used by associated with the name of the person so psychologists. strongly that they derive such identities as the ‘Gandhian’ or ‘Hitlerian’ trait. Less Eysenck’s Theory pervasive in effect, but still quite H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality generalised dispositions, are called central could be reduced into two broad traits. These traits (e.g., warm, sincere, dimensions. These are biologically and diligent, etc.) are often used in writing a genetically based. Each dimension testimonial or job recommendation subsumes a number of specific traits. for a person. The least generalised These dimensions are: characteristics of a person are called (1) Neuroticism vs. emotional stability : It secondary traits. Traits such as ‘likes refers to the degree to which people mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are have control over their feelings. At one examples of secondary traits. extreme of the dimension, we find While Allport acknowledged the people who are neurotic. They are influence of situations on behaviour, he anxious, moody, touchy, restless and held that the way a person reacts to given quickly lose control. At the other 32 Psychology 2024-25  Five-Factor Model of Personality Box 2.2 The controversy regarding the number of basic personality traits has taken an interesting turn in recent years. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae have examined all possible personality traits. The findings indicate a set of five factors. They are often called Big Five Factors. These factors include: 1. Openness to experience : Those who score high on this factor are imaginative, curious, open to new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, those who score low are rigid. 2. Extraversion : It characterises people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing, talkative, and fun loving. On its opposite are people who are shy. 3. Agreeableness : This factor characterises people who are helpful, co-operative, friendly, caring, and nurturing. On the opposite are people who are hostile and self-centered. 4. Neuroticism : People who score high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious, worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. On the opposite side are people who are well adjusted. 5. Conscientiousness : Those who score high on this factor are achievement-oriented, dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking and self-controlled. On the opposite are people who are impulsive. This five factor model represents an important theoretical development in the field of personality. It has been found useful in understanding the personality profile of people across cultures. While it is consistent with the analysis of personality traits found in different languages, it is also supported by the studies of personality carried out through different methods. Hence, it is now considered to be the most promising empirical approach to the study of personality. extreme lie people who are calm, even- with the other two dimensions mentioned tempered, reliable and remain under above. A person who scores high on control. psychoticism dimension tends to be (2) Extraversion vs. introversion : It refers hostile, egocentric, and antisocial. to the degree to which people are Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is the socially outgoing or socially withdrawn. test which is used for studying these At one extreme are those who are dimensions of personality. active, gregarious, impulsive and thrill- The trait approach is very popular and seeking. At the other extreme are many advances in this respect are taking people who are passive, quiet, cautious place. These are beyond the scope of your and reserved. present studies. A new formulation has also been advanced that provides a novel In a later work Eysenck proposed a scheme of organising traits. This new third dimension, called Psychoticism vs. formulation is given in Box 2.2. Sociability, which is considered to interact Psychodynamic Approach Activity If you were asked to change one aspect This is a highly popular approach to 2.2 of your personality, what would you studying personality. This view owes like to change and why? If not, why? largely to the contributions of Sigmund Which aspect of your personality would Freud. He was a physician, and developed you never want to change? Write a this theory in the course of his clinical paragraph. Discuss with a friend. practice. Early in his career he used 33 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 hypnosis to treat people with physical and repressed unconscious materials to emotional problems. He noted that many consciousness, thereby helping people to of his patients needed to talk about their live in a more self-aware and integrated problems, and having talked about them, manner. they often felt better. Freud used free association (a method in which a person is Structure of Personality asked to openly share all the thoughts, According to Freud’s theory, the primary feelings and ideas that come to her/his structural elements of personality are mind), dream analysis, and analysis of three, i.e. id, ego, and superego. They errors to understand the inter nal reside in the unconscious as forces, and functioning of the mind. they can be inferred from the ways people behave (see Fig. 2.2). Let us remember that Levels of Consciousness id, ego and superego are concepts, not real Freud’s theory considers the sources and physical structures. We will discuss these consequences of emotional conflicts and terms in some detail. the way people deal with these. In doing so, it visualises the human mind in terms of three levels of consciousness. The first level is conscious, which includes the thoughts, feelings and actions of which people are aware. The second level is preconscious, which includes mental activity of which people may become aware only if they attend to it closely. The third level is unconscious, which includes mental activity that people are unaware of. According to Freud, the unconscious is a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives. It also stores all ideas and wishes that are concealed from conscious awareness, perhaps, because they lead to Fig.2.2 : Structure of Personality in Freudian psychological conflicts. Most of these arise Theory from sexual desires which cannot be expressed openly and ther efore are Id : It is the source of a person’s repressed. People constantly struggle to instinctual energy. It deals with immediate find either some socially acceptable ways gratification of primitive needs, sexual to express unconscious impulses, or to desires and aggressive impulses. It works keep those impulses away from being on the pleasure principle, which assumes expressed. Unsuccessful resolution of that people seek pleasure and try to avoid conflicts results in abnormal behaviour. pain. Freud considered much of a person’s Analysis of forgetting, mispronunciations, instinctual energy to be sexual, and the jokes and dreams provide us with a means rest as aggressive. Id does not care for to approach the unconscious. Freud moral values, society, or other individuals. developed a therapeutic procedure, called psychoanalysis. The basic goal of Ego : It grows out of id, and seeks to psychoanalytic therapy is to bring the satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in 34 Psychology 2024-25 accordance with reality. It works by the Ego Defence Mechanisms reality principle, and often directs the id According to Freud, much of human towar ds more appropriate ways of behaviour reflects an attempt to deal with behaving. For example, the id of a boy, who or escape from anxiety. Thus, how the ego wants an ice-cream cone, tells him to grab deals with anxiety largely determines how the cone and eat it. His ego tells him that people behave. Freud believed that people if he grabs the cone without asking, he avoid anxiety mainly by developing defence may be punished. Working on the reality mechanisms that try to defend the ego principle, the boy knows that the best way against the awareness of the instinctual to achieve gratification is to ask for needs. Thus, defence mechanism is a way permission to eat the cone. Thus, while the of reducing anxiety by distorting reality. id is demanding, unrealistic and works Although some defence against anxiety is according to pleasure principle, the ego is normal and adaptive, people who use these patient, reasonable, and works by the mechanisms to such an extent that reality reality principle. is truly distorted develop various forms of Superego : The best way to characterise the maladjustment. superego is to think of it as the moral Freud has described many different branch of mental functioning. The kinds of defence mechanisms. The most important is repression, in which anxiety- superego tells the id and the ego whether provoking behaviours or thoughts are gratification in a particular instance is totally dismissed by the unconscious. ethical. It helps contr ol the id by When people repress a feeling or desire, inter nalising the parental authority they become totally unaware of that wish through the process of socialisation. For or desire. Thus, when a person says, “I do example, if a boy sees and wants an ice- not know why I did that”, some repressed cream cone and asks his mother for it, his feeling or desire is expressing itself. superego will indicate that his behaviour Other major defence mechanisms are is morally correct. This approach towards projection, denial, reaction formation and obtaining the ice-cream will not create rationalisation. In projection, people guilt, fear or anxiety in the boy. attribute their own traits to others. Thus, Thus, in terms of individual functioning a person who has strong aggressive Freud thought of the unconscious as being tendencies may see other people as acting composed of three competing forces. In in an excessively aggressive way towards some people, the id is stronger than the her/him. In denial, a person totally refuses superego; in others, it is the superego. The to accept reality. Thus, someone suffering r elative strength of the id, ego and from HIV/AIDS may altogether deny her/ superego deter mines each person’s his illness. In reaction formation, a stability. Freud also assumed that id is person defends against anxiety by adopting energised by two instinctual forces, called behaviours opposite to her/his true life instinct and death instinct. He paid feelings. A person with strong sexual urges, less attention to the death instinct and who channels her/his energy into religious focused mor e on the life (or sexual) fervour, presents a classical example of instinct. The instinctual life force that reaction formation. In rationalisation, a energises the id is called libido. It works person tries to make unreasonable feelings on the pleasure principle, and seeks or behaviour seem r easonable and immediate gratification. acceptable. For example, when a student 35 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 buys a set of new pens after doing poorly children at this age experience pleasure in in an examination, s/he may try to moving their bowels. The anal area of the rationalise her/his behaviour by asserting, body becomes the focus of certain “I will do much better with these pens”. pleasurable feelings. This stage establishes People who use defence mechanisms the basis for conflict between the id and are often unaware of doing so. Each the ego, and between the desire for babyish defence mechanism is a way for the ego to pleasure and demand for adult, controlled deal with the uncomfortable feelings behaviour. produced by anxiety. However, Freud’s Phallic Stage : This stage focuses on the ideas about the role of defence genitals. At around ages four and five mechanisms have been questioned. For children begin to realise the differences example, his claim that projection reduces between males and females. They become anxiety and stress has not found support aware of sexuality and the sexual in several studies. relationship between their parents. During this stage, the male child experiences the Stages of Personality Development Oedipus Complex, which involves love for Freud claims that the core aspects of the mother, hostility towards the father, personality are established early, remain and the consequent fear of punishment or stable throughout life, and can be changed castration by the father (Oedipus was a only with great difficulty. He proposed a Greek king who unknowingly killed his five-stage theory of personality (also father and then married his mother). A called psychosexual) development. major developmental achievement of this Problems encountered at any stage may stage is the resolution of the Oedipus arrest development, and have long-term complex. This takes place by accepting his effect on a person’s life. A brief description father’s relationship with his mother, and of these stages is given here. modelling his own behaviour after his Oral Stage : A newborn’s instincts are father. focused on the mouth. This is the infant’s For girls, the Oedipus complex (called primary pleasure seeking centre. It is the Electra Complex after Electra, a Greek through the mouth that the baby obtains character, who induced her brother to kill food that reduces hunger. The infant their mother) follows a slightly different achieves oral gratification through feeding, course. By attaching her love to the father thumb sucking, biting and babbling. It is a girl tries to symbolically marry him and during these early months that people’s raise a family. When she realises that this basic feelings about the world are is unlikely, she begins to identify with her mother and copy her behaviour as a means established. Thus, for Freud, an adult who of getting (or, sharing in) her father’s considers the world a bitter place probably affection. The critical component in had difficulty during the oral stage of resolving the Oedipus complex is the development. development of identification with the same Anal Stage : It is found that around ages sex parents. In other words, boys give up two and three the child learns to respond sexual feelings for their mothers and begin to some of the demands of the society. One to see their fathers as role models rather of the principal demands made by parents than as rivals; girls give up their sexual is that the child learns to control the bodily desires for their father and identify with functions of urination and defecation. Most their mother. 36 Psychology 2024-25 Latency Stage : This stage lasts from about worked with him and then moved on to seven years until puberty. During this develop their own versions of the period, the child continues to grow psychoanalytic theory. These theorists physically, but sexual urges are relatively have been called neo-analytic, or post- inactive. Much of a child’s energy is Freudian in order to differentiate their channelled into social or achievement- work from Freud’s. These theories are related activities. characterised by less prominent roles to Genital Stage : During this stage, the sexual and aggressive tendencies of the id person attains maturity in psychosexual and expansion of the concept of ego. The development. The sexuality, fears and human qualities of creativity, competence, repressed feelings of earlier stages are once and pr oblem solving abilities ar e again exhibited. People learn to deal with emphasised. Some of these theories are members of the opposite sex in a socially briefly described here. and sexually mature way. However, if the Carl Jung : Aims and Aspirations journey towards this stage is marked by excessive stress or over-indulgence, it may Jung worked with Freud in his early stages cause fixation to an earlier stage of of career, but later on he broke away from development. Freud. Jung saw human beings guided as Freud’s theory also postulates that as much by aims and aspirations as by sex children proceed from one stage to another and aggression. He developed his own stage of development, they seem to adjust theory of personality, called analytical their view of the world. Failure of a child psychology. The basic assumption of his to pass successfully through a stage leads theory is that personality consists of to fixation to that stage. In this situation, competing forces and structures within the the child’s development gets arrested at an individual (that must be balanced) rather earlier stage. For example, a child who than between the individual and the does not pass successfully through the demands of society, or between the phallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipal individual and reality. complex and may still feel hostile toward Jung claimed that ther e was a the parent of the same sex. This failure collective unconscious consisting of may have serious consequences for the archetypes or primordial images. These child’s life. Such a boy may come to are not individually acquired, but are consider that men are generally hostile, inherited. The God or the Mother Earth is and may wish to relate to females in a a good example of archetypes. They are dependable relationship. Regression is found in myths, dreams and arts of all also a likely outcome in such situations. mankind. Jung held that the self strives for It takes a person back to an earlier stage. unity and oneness. It is an archetype that Regr ession occurs when a person’s is expressed in many ways. He devoted resolution of problems at any stage of much of his efforts to the study of such development is less than adequate. In this expressions in various traditions. situation, people display behaviours typical According to him, for achieving unity and of a less mature stage of development. wholeness, a person must become increasingly aware of the wisdom available Post-Freudian Approaches in one’s personal and collective A number of theorists further developed unconscious, and must learn to live in their ideas following Freud. Some had harmony with it. 37 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 Karen Horney : Optimism Erich Fromm : The Human Concerns Horney was another disciple of Freud who In contrast to Freud’s biological developed a theory that deviated from basic orientation, Fromm developed his theory Freudian principles. She adopted a more from a social orientation. He viewed human optimistic view of human life with beings as basically social beings who emphasis on human growth and self- could be understood in terms of their actualisation. relationship with others. He argued that Horney’s major contribution lies in her psychological qualities such as growth and challenge to Freud’s treatment of women realisation of potentials resulted from a as inferior. According to her, each sex has desire for freedom, and striving for attributes to be admired by the other, and justice and truth. neither sex can be viewed as superior or Fromm holds that character traits inferior. She countered that women were (personality) develop from our experiences more likely to be affected by social and with other individuals. While culture is cultural factors than by biological factors. shaped by the mode of existence of a given She argued that psychological disorders society, people’s dominant character traits were caused by disturbed interpersonal in a given society work as forces in shaping relationship during childhood. When the social processes and the culture itself. parents’ behaviour toward a child is His work recognises the value of positive qualities, such as tenderness and love in indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the personality development. child feels insecure and a feeling called basic anxiety results. Deep resentment Erik Erikson : Search for Identity toward parents or basic hostility occurs due to this anxiety. By showing excessive Erikson’s theory lays stress on rational, dominance or indifference, or by providing conscious ego processes in personality too much or too little approval, parents can development. In his theory, development is generate among children feelings of viewed as a lifelong process, and ego isolation and helplessness which interfere identity is granted a central place in this with their healthy development. process. His concept of identity crisis of adolescent age has drawn considerable Alfred Adler : Lifestyle and Social Interest attention. Erikson argues that young people must generate for themselves a Adler’s theory is known as individual central perspective and a direction that can psychology. His basic assumption is that give them a meaningful sense of unity and human behaviour is purposeful and goal- purpose. directed. Each one of us has the capacity Psychodynamic theories face strong to choose and create. Our personal goals criticisms from many quarters. The major are the sources of our motivation. The criticisms are as follows: goals that provide us with security and (1) The theories are largely based on case help us in overcoming the feelings of studies; they lack a rigorous scientific inadequacy are important in our basis. personality development. In Adler’s view, (2) They use small and atypical individuals every individual suffers from the feelings as samples for advancing generali- of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority sations. complex, which arise from childhood. (3) The concepts are not properly defined, Overcoming this complex is essential for and it is difficult to submit them to optimal personality development. scientific testing. 38 Psychology 2024-25 (4) Freud has used males as the prototype learning principles that involve the use of of all human personality development. stimuli, responses, and reinforcement in He overlooked female experiences and different ways. The theories of classical perspectives. conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning (Skinner), and observational Behavioural Approach learning (Bandura) are well-known to you. This approach does not give importance to These theories view lear ning and the internal dynamics of behaviour. The maintenance of behaviour from different angles. The principles of these theories behaviourists believe in data, which they have been widely used in developing feel ar e definable, observable, and personality theories. For example, measurable. Thus, they focus on learning observational learning theory considers of stimulus-response connections and their thought processes extremely important in r einforcement. According to them, learning, but these find almost no place in personality can be best understood as the classical or instrumental conditioning r esponse of an individual to the theories. Observational learning theory environment. They see the development also emphasises social learning (based on simply as a change in response observation and imitation of others) and characteristics, i.e. a person learns new self-regulation, which again is missed out behaviours in r esponse to new in other theories. environments and stimuli. For most behaviourists, the structural unit of personality is the response. Each Observe and note your behaviour Activity characteristics and those of your 2.3 response is a behaviour, which is emitted friends that have been imbibed from to satisfy a specific need. As you know, all popular youth icons. of us eat because of hunger, but we are also very choosy about foods. For example, children do not like eating many of the vegetables (e.g., spinach, pumpkin, gourds, Cultural Approach etc.), but gradually they learn to eat them. This approach attempts to understand Why do they do so? According to the personality in relation to the features of behavioural appr oach, children may ecological and cultural environment. It initially learn to eat such vegetables in pr oposes that a group’s ‘economic anticipation of appreciation (reinforcement) maintenance system’ plays a vital role in from their parents. Later on they may the origin of cultural and behavioural eventually learn to eat vegetables not only variations. The climatic conditions, the because their parents are pleased with this nature of terrain of the habitat and the behaviour, but also because they acquire availability of food (flora and fauna) in it the taste of those vegetables, and find them determine not only people’s economic good. Thus, the core tendency that activities, but also their settlement organises behaviour is the reduction of patterns, social structures, division of biological or social needs that energise labour, and other features such as child- behaviour. This is accomplished rearing practices. Taken together these through responses (behaviours) that are elements constitute a child’s overall reinforced. lear ning environment. People’s skills, From your study in Class XI, you may abilities, behavioural styles, and value recall that there are several different priorities are viewed as strongly linked to 39 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 these features. Rituals, ceremonies, cultural demands, children in hunting- religious practices, arts, recreational gathering and agricultural societies activities, games and play are the means develop and display different personality through which people’s personality gets patterns. projected in a culture. People develop various personality (behavioural) qualities Humanistic Approach in an attempt to adapt to the ecological and The humanistic theories are mainly cultural features of a group’s life. Thus, the developed in response to Freud’s theory. cultural approach considers personality as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow have an adaptation of individuals or groups to particularly contributed to the development the demands of their ecology and culture. of humanistic perspective on personality. Let us try to understand these aspects We will briefly examine their theories. with a concrete example. As you know, a The most important idea proposed by good proportion of the world’s population, Rogers is that of a fully functioning even today, lives in forests and person. He believes that fulfilment is the mountainous regions with hunting and motivating force for personality gathering (economic activities) as their development. People try to express their primary means of livelihood. The Birhor (a capabilities, potentials and talents to the tribal group) of Jharkhand represent such fullest extent possible. There is an inborn a population. Most of them live a nomadic tendency among persons that directs them life, which requires constant movement in to actualise their inherited nature. small bands from one forest to another in Rogers makes two basic assumptions search of games and other forest products about human behaviour. One is that (e.g., fruits, roots, mushrooms, honey, behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. etc.). In the Birhor society, children from The second is that people (who are innately an early age are allowed enormous freedom good) will almost always choose adaptive, to move into forests and learn hunting and self-actualising behaviour. gathering skills. Their child socialisation Rogers’ theory grew out of his practices are also aimed at making experiences of listening to patients in his children independent (do many things clinic. He noted that self was an important without help from elders), autonomous element in the experience of his clients. (take several decisions for themselves), and Thus, his theory is structured around the achievement-oriented (accept risks and concept of self. The theory assumes that challenges such as those involved in people are constantly engaged in the hunting) from an early age of life. process of actualising their true self. In agricultural societies, children are Rogers suggests that each person also socialised to be obedient to elders, has a concept of ideal self. An ideal self is nurturant to youngsters, and responsible the self that a person would like to be. to their duties. Since these behavioural When there is a correspondence between qualities make people more functional in the real self and ideal self, a person is agricultural societies, they become generally happy. Discrepancy between the dominant features of people’s personality real self and ideal self often results in in contrast to independence, autonomy unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Rogers’ and achievement, which are more basic principle is that people have a functional (and thus highly valued) in tendency to maximise self-concept through hunting-gathering societies. Because of self-actualisation. In this process, the self different economic pursuits and grows, expands and becomes more social. 40 Psychology 2024-25  Fig.2.3 : Pattern of Adjustment and Self-concept Rogers views personality development from your study of motivation in Class XI. as a continuous process. It involves Maslow has given a detailed account of lear ning to evaluate oneself and psychologically healthy people in terms of mastering the pr ocess of self- their attainment of self-actualisation, a actualisation. He recognises the role of state in which people have reached their social influences in the development of own fullest potential. Maslow had an self-concept. When social conditions are optimistic and positive view of man who positive, the self-concept and self-esteem has the potentialities for love, joy and to are high. In contrast, when the conditions do cr eative work. Human beings are are negative, the self-concept and self- considered free to shape their lives and to esteem are low. People with high self- self-actualise. Self-actualisation becomes concept and self-esteem are generally possible by analysing the motivations that flexible and open to new experiences, so govern our life. We know that biological, that they can continue to grow and self- security, and belongingness needs (called actualise. survival needs) are commonly found This situation warrants that an among animals and human beings. Thus, atmosphere of unconditional positive an individual’s sole concer n with the regard must be created in order to ensure satisfaction of these needs reduces her/ enhancement of people’s self-concept. The him to the level of animals. The real client-centred therapy that Rogers journey of human life begins with the developed basically attempts to create this pursuit of self-esteem and self- condition. actualisation needs. The humanistic You are already familiar with the approach emphasises the significance of hierarchy of needs propounded by Maslow positive aspects of life (see Box 2.3). Who is a Healthy Person? Box 2.3 The humanistic theorists have indicated that healthy personality lies in not mere adjustment to society. It involves a quest to know oneself deeply and to be true to one’s own feelings without disguise, and to be oneself in the here-and-now. According to them, the healthy people share the following characteristics : 1. They become aware of themselves, their feelings, and their limits; accept themselves, and what they make of their lives as their own responsibility; have ‘the courage to be’. 2. They experience the “here-and-now”; are not trapped. 3. They do not live in the past or dwell in the future through anxious expectations and distorted defences. 41 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25  ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY her/him about herself/himself. This led to the use of self-report measures. These are To know, understand and describe people fairly structured measures, often based on is a task in which everybody is involved in theory, that require subjects to give verbal day-to-day life. When we meet new people, responses using some kind of rating scale. we often try to understand them and even The method requires the subject to predict what they may do before we objectively report her/his own feelings with interact with them. In our personal lives, respect to various items. The responses are we rely on our past experiences, accepted at their face value. They are observations, conversations and infor- scored in quantitative ter ms and mation obtained from other persons. This interpreted on the basis of nor ms approach to understanding others may be developed for the test. Some of the well- influenced by a number of factors that may known self-report measures are briefly colour our judgement and reduce described below. objectivity. Hence, we need to organise our efforts mor e for mally to analyse The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality personalities. A formal effort aimed at Inventory (MMPI) understanding personality of an individual This inventory is widely used as a test in is termed as personality assessment. personality assessment. Hathaway and Assessment refers to the procedures McKinley developed this test as a helping used to evaluate or differentiate people on tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the test the basis of certain characteristics. The goal of assessment is to understand and has been found very effective in identifying predict behaviour with minimum error and varieties of psychopathology. Its revised maximum accuracy. In assessment, we try version is available as MMPI-2. It consists to study what a person generally does, or of 567 statements. The subject has to judge how s/he behaves, in a given situation. each statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’ for her/ Besides promoting our understanding, him. The test is divided into 10 subscales, assessment is also useful for diagnosis, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, training, placement, counselling, and other depression, hysteria, psychopathic purposes. deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, Psychologists have tried to assess psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and personality in various ways. The social introversion. In India, Mallick and most commonly used techniques are Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Psychometric Tests, Self-Report Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) Measures, Projective Techniques, and along the lines of MMPI. Behavioural Analysis. These techniques are rooted in dif ferent theoretical Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) orientations; hence they throw light on Developed by Eysenck this test initially different aspects of personality. You have assessed two dimensions of personality, read about psychometric tests in the called introverted-extraverted and previous chapter. We will discuss the other emotionally stable-emotionally unstable. methods. These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits. Later on, Eysenck added Self-report Measures a third dimension, called psychoticism. It It was Allport who suggested that the best is linked to psychopathology that method to assess a person is by asking represents a lack of feeling for others, a 42 Psychology 2024-25 tough manner of interacting with people, to an optimum level under careful and a tendency to defy social conventions. supervision of an expert, you should not A person scoring high on this dimension venture into testing and interpreting the tends to be hostile, egocentric, and personality of your friends who do not antisocial. This test is also widely used. study psychology. Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire Projective Techniques (16 PF) The techniques of personality assessment This test was developed by Cattell. On the described so far are known as direct basis of his studies, he identified a large techniques, because they tend to rely on set of personality descriptors, which were information directly obtained from the subjected to factor analysis to identify the person who clearly knows that her/his basic personality structure. You will learn personality is being assessed. In these about this statistical technique later. The situations, people generally become self- test provides with declarative statements, conscious and hesitate to share their and the subject responds to a specific private feelings, thoughts, and motivations. situation by choosing from a set of given When they do so, they often do it in a alternatives. The test can be used with socially desirable manner. high school level students as well as with The psychoanalytic theory tells us that adults. It has been found extremely useful a large part of human behaviour is in career guidance, vocational exploration, governed by unconscious motives. Direct and occupational testing. methods of personality assessment cannot Apart from the few popular tests which uncover the unconscious part of our use self-report technique which have been behaviour. Hence, they fail to provide us described above, there are several others with a real picture of an individual’s that try to assess specific dimensions of personality. These pr oblems can be personality (e.g., authoritarianism, locus of overcome by using indirect methods of control, optimism, etc.). As you proceed assessment. Projective techniques fall in further with your study of psychology, you this category. will come to know more about them. Projective techniques were developed to The self-report measures suffer from a assess unconscious motives and feelings. number of problems. Social desirability is These techniques are based on the one of them. It is a tendency on the part assumption that a less structured or of the respondent to endorse items in a unstructured stimulus or situation will socially desirable manner. Acquiescence is allow the individual to project her/his another one. It is a tendency of the subject feelings, desires and needs on to that to agree with items/questions irrespective situation. These projections are interpreted of their contents. It often appears in the by experts. A variety of projective for m of saying ‘yes’ to items. These techniques have been developed; they use tendencies render the assessment of various kinds of stimulus materials and personality less reliable. situations for assessing personality. Some It is also necessary to sound a note of of them require reporting associations with caution at this stage. Remember that stimuli (e.g., words, inkblots), some involve psychological testing and understanding story writing around pictures, some require personality requires great skill and sentence completions, some requir e training. Unless you have acquired these expression through drawings, and some 43 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 require choice of stimuli from a large set is prepared by asking the subject to tell of stimuli. where, how, and on what basis was a While the nature of stimuli and particular response made. Fine judgment responses in these techniques vary is necessary to place the subject’s enormously, all of them do share the responses in a meaningful context. The use following features: and interpretation of this test requires (1) The stimuli are relatively or fully extensive training. Computer techniques unstructured and poorly defined. too have been developed for analysis of (2) The person being assessed is usually data. An example of the Rorschach Inkblot not told about the purpose of is given in Figure 2.4. assessment and the method of scoring and interpretation. (3) The person is informed that there are no correct or incorrect responses. (4) Each response is considered to reveal a significant aspect of personality. (5) Scoring and interpretation are lengthy and sometimes subjective. Projective techniques are different from the psychometric tests in many ways. They cannot be scored in any objective manner. They generally require qualitative analyses for which a rigorous training is needed. In the following pages, some of the well- known projective techniques are briefly discussed. The Rorschach Inkblot Test Fig.2.4 : An Example of the Rorschach Inkblot This test was developed by Hermann The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Rorschach. The test consists of 10 inkblots. Five of them are in black and This test was developed by Morgan and white, two with some red ink, and the Murray. It is a little more structured than remaining three in some pastel colours. the Inkblot test. The test consists of 30 The blots are symmetrical in design with black and white picture cards and one a specific shape or form. Each blot is blank card. Each picture card depicts one printed in the centre of a white cardboard or more people in a variety of situations. of about 7”´10” size. The blots were Each picture is printed on a card. Some originally made by dropping ink on a piece cards are used with adult males or females. of paper and then folding the paper in half Others are used with boys or girls. Still (hence called inkblot test). The cards are others are used in some combinations. administered individually in two phases. In Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject, the first phase, called perfor mance although a lesser number of cards (even proper, the subjects are shown the cards five) have also been successfully used. and are asked to tell what they see in each The cards are presented one at a time. of them. In the second phase, called The subject is asked to tell a story inquiry, a detailed report of the response describing the situation presented in the 44 Psychology 2024-25 picture: What led up to the situation, what made to examine whether the focus is on is happening at the moment, what will the frustrating object, or on protection of happen in the futur e, and what the the frustrated person, or on constructive characters are feeling and thinking? A solution of the problem. The direction of standard procedure is available for scoring aggr ession may be towards the TAT responses. The test has been modified environment, towards oneself, or it may be for childr en and for the aged. Uma tuned off in an attempt to gloss over or Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is evade the situation. Pareek has adapted also available. An example of a TAT card this test for use with the Indian is given in Figure 2.5. population. Sentence Completion Test This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences. The starting part of the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence. It is held that the type of endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The test pr ovides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious motivations. A few sample items of a sentence completion test are given below. 1. My father——————————————. 2. My greatest fear is —————————. 3. The best thing about my mother is — —————————. 4. I am proud of ———————————— Fig.2.5 : An Illustration Showing the Drawing of a ————————. Card of TAT Draw-a-Person Test It is a simple test in which the subject is Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper. (P-F Study) A pencil and eraser is provided to facilitate This test was developed by Rosenzweig to drawing. After the completion of the assess how people express aggression in drawing, the subject is generally asked to the face of a frustrating situation. The test draw the figure of an opposite sex person. presents with the help of cartoon like Finally, the subject is asked to make a pictures a series of situations in which one story about the person as if s/he was a person frustrates another, or calls character in a novel or play. Some attention to a frustrating condition. The examples of interpretations are as follows: subject is asked to tell what the other (1) Omission of facial features (frustrated) person will say or do. The suggests that the person tries to evade analysis of responses is based on the type a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal and direction of aggression. An attempt is relationship. 45 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 2024-25 (2) Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests enough potential to reveal her/his lack of control over impulses. personality. The structured interviews (3) Disproportionately large head suggests address very specific questions and follow organic brain disease and pr e- a set procedure. This is often done to make occupation with headaches. objective comparison of persons being The analysis of personality with the interviewed. Use of rating scales may help of projective techniques appears fairly further enhance the objectivity of interesting. It helps us to understand evaluations. unconscious motives, deep-rooted conflicts, and emotional complexes of an Observation individual. However, the interpretation of Behavioural observation is another method the responses requires sophisticated skills which is very commonly used for the and specialised training. There are assessment of personality. Although all of problems associated with the reliability of us watch people and form impressions scoring and validity of interpretations. But, about their personality, use of observation the practitioners have found these for personality assessment is a techniques quite useful. sophisticated procedure that cannot be carried out by untrained people. It requires Behavioural Analysis careful training of the observer, and a fairly A person’s behaviour in a variety of detailed guideline about analysis of situations can provide us with meaningful behaviours in order to assess the information about her/his personality. personality of a given person. For example, Observation of behaviour serves as the a clinical psychologist may like to observe basis of behavioural analysis. An observer’s her/his client’s interaction with family report may contain data obtained from members and home visitors. With carefully interview, observation, ratings , designed observation, the clinical nomination, and situational tests. We psychologist may gain considerable insight will examine these different procedures in into a client’s personality. some detail. In spite of their frequent and widespread use, observation and interview Interview methods are characterised by the following Interview is a commonly used method for limitations: assessing personality. This involves talking (1) Professional training required for to the person being assessed and asking collection of useful data through these specific questions. Diagnostic interviewing methods is quite demanding and time- generally involves in-depth interviewing consuming. which seeks to go beyond the replies given by the person. Interviews may be (2) Maturity of the psychologist is a structured or unstructured depending on precondition for obtaining valid data the purpose or goals of assessment. through these techniques. In unstructured interviews, the (3) Mere presence of the observer may interviewer seeks to develop an impression contaminate the results. As a stranger, about a person by asking a number of the observer may influence the questions. The way a person presents her/ behaviour of the person being observed himself