Writing for the Web - Study Material PDF

Writing for the Web 1. Identify the Users and Purpose of the Website Before designing a website, it’s important to define who will use it and why they are visiting. This ensures the content, layout, and features meet the audience’s needs. Felder (2012, p.4) lists these important questions: 1. W...

Writing for the Web 1. Identify the Users and Purpose of the Website Before designing a website, it’s important to define who will use it and why they are visiting. This ensures the content, layout, and features meet the audience’s needs. Felder (2012, p.4) lists these important questions: 1. What' s the purpose of your content? 2. What are the key messages that you want your reader to take away? 3. Who is the content written for? Key Questions to Ask: ✅ Who are the users? (Customers, students, researchers, professionals, etc.) ✅ Why are they visiting the website? (To find information, buy a product, learn something, etc.) ✅ What key messages should they take away? (Clear purpose of the website) ✅ How should the information be presented? (Text-heavy, multimedia-rich, interactive, etc.) ✅ What problems does the website solve? (Provides quick access to important info, offers services, etc.) Example Scenarios: A university website targets students looking for admission details, course outlines, and exam schedules. An e-commerce site caters to customers searching for products, reviews, and a checkout system. A news website should quickly provide the latest updates in an easy-to-read format. Methods to Identify Users & Needs: 📊 Surveys & Questionnaires – Ask potential users what they expect from the site. 🎤 Interviews & Focus Groups – Gain detailed feedback from specific audiences. 📈 Website Analytics – Use tools like Google Analytics to track user behavior. 2. Identify the Content for the Site Website content must be clear, relevant, engaging, and legally compliant. Content Must: ✅ Meet user expectations (accurate, updated, easy to find). ✅ Serve the website’s purpose (educational, commercial, informational). ✅ Be legally compliant (proper citations, copyright adherence). Types of Content with Examples: 📄 Text – Blog posts, research articles, FAQs. (Example: A health website publishing an article on diabetes management.) 🖼 Images & Graphics – Charts, product images, infographics. (Example: An online store showing high-quality product images.) 🎥 Multimedia – Videos, podcasts, animations. (Example: A tutorial video explaining how to use a new software.) 🔗 Links & References – Internal and external citations. (Example: A research website linking to government statistics.) Legal & Ethical Considerations: ⚠ Copyright Issues – Do not use someone else’s content without permission. (Example: Using an image from another site without crediting the owner is unethical.) ⚠ Misinformation – Always verify facts before publishing. (Example: Fake news articles harm credibility.) ⚠ Accessibility – Content should be readable by everyone, including users with disabilities. (Example: Using alt text for images so visually impaired users can understand them.) 3. Determine the Overall Site Organization A well-structured website enhances user experience and accessibility. Key Elements of Website Organization: 📌 Homepage – The central hub that provides an overview and main navigation. (Example: A bank’s homepage showing quick links to loans, accounts, and customer service.) 📌 Main Categories – Clearly defined sections for easy browsing. (Example: An e-learning site with sections for courses, instructors, and student forums.) 📌 Search Function – A feature that allows users to quickly find information. (Example: A job portal with filters for location, salary, and industry.) 📌 Navigation Menu – A structured menu that allows users to move through the site easily. (Example: An airline website with tabs for flights, bookings, and check-in.) User-Oriented Design Principles: 🔹 Logical Flow – Users should transition smoothly from general to specific content. (Example: A restaurant website should first show general menu categories before listing specific dishes.) 🔹 Clear Hierarchy – Headings and subheadings must be consistent. (Example: A research website using proper formatting for main topics and subtopics.) 🔹 Minimized Clicks – Users should reach the desired page within three clicks. (Example: A library website where users can find a book’s availability without excessive navigation.) 4. Design the Pages & Write and Code the Content A website's layout, formatting, and writing style determine how easily users can access and understand information. 4.1 Making Your Website Credible A credible website builds trust and encourages users to return. ✅ Include organization details (Name, contact, physical address). (Example: A business website listing its headquarters and customer support email.) ✅ Display a “Last Updated” date to show the content is current. (Example: A government website indicating the last update on tax policies.) ✅ Maintain a professional tone (avoid slang, excessive emojis). (Example: An academic journal using formal language.) ✅ Cite sources properly for all facts and statistics. (Example: A health website citing medical research papers.) 4.2 Create User-Oriented Content 🔹 Adapt print content for the web (short paragraphs, bullet points). (Example: A university syllabus rewritten as an interactive webpage instead of a long PDF.) 🔹 Prioritize essential information to prevent information overload. (Example: A travel website summarizing visa requirements instead of lengthy descriptions.) 4.3 Making Web Text Easier to Read 🔹 Use concise writing – Keep sentences short and direct. (Example: "Click here to apply" instead of "You can submit your application by clicking here.") 🔹 Write in the active voice – “The system updates automatically” instead of “The system is updated automatically.” 🔹 Use simple language – Avoid jargon unless necessary. (Example: "Free shipping" instead of "Zero-cost logistics solution.") 4.4 Help Users Navigate the Site 📌 Include a Site Map for easy navigation. (Example: A sitemap page listing all sections of an online store.) 📌 Provide a Homepage Link on every page. (Example: A news website always having a "Home" button.) 5. Test and Revise the Site Before launching, test the website to ensure it’s functional and user-friendly. 5.1 Editing Checklist: Organization and Content ✅ Does the site structure follow a logical flow? ✅ Can users access key information easily? 5.2 Editing Checklist: Layout and Design ✅ Are the fonts and colors consistent? (Example: Avoiding clashing colors that make text unreadable.) ✅ Are graphics clear and relevant? (Example: Using a relevant image instead of random stock photos.) 5.3 Editing Checklist: Text Content ✅ Are sentences short and precise? (Example: "Sign up now" instead of "You are encouraged to register as soon as possible.") 5.4 Editing Checklist: Interactivity and Multimedia ✅ Do videos and audio files function correctly? (Example: A webinar page ensuring all embedded videos play properly.) 6. Launch the Site 🔹 Test across different browsers (Example: Chrome, Firefox, Safari.) 🔹 Ensure mobile-friendliness (Example: A restaurant website that adjusts well on a phone screen.) 7. Maintain & Revise the Site A website needs continuous updates to remain useful. 🔹 Check for broken links regularly. (Example: An e-commerce site fixing expired product pages.) 🔹 Update outdated information (Example: A government page updating tax regulations yearly.) 🔹 Monitor user feedback (Example: A forum site responding to user complaints about navigation issues.) Writing for the Web (Ethics, Credibility & Plagiarism) 1. Ethics in Web Design Web design is not just about aesthetics; it also involves ethical considerations. Ethics in web design ensures that websites are fair, accessible, and transparent, avoiding deceptive practices that manipulate users. Web work, like all work, is political, and the precise character of the politics of web work is closely related to the ethics and values of its practitioners... Helen Kennedy (2012, p. 4) Ethics concerns the moral principles of ' right' and ' wrong.' "Ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues, " (Velasquez, Andre, Shanks & Meyer, 2010) 1.1 What is Ethics? Ethics refers to moral principles that define what is right and wrong. In web design, this means designing websites that are: ✅ Honest – No misleading content or hidden information. ✅ Fair – Accessible to all users, including those with disabilities. ✅ Transparent – Clearly stating terms of use, policies, and conditions. 🔹 Example of Ethical Web Design: A government website providing clear, official information on tax regulations without hidden costs or biased interpretations. 🔹 Example of Unethical Web Design: A travel booking website that hides additional fees until the final checkout step. 1.2 Dark UX & Deceptive Practices in Web Design Some websites intentionally use "Dark UX" (dark user experience) to trick or manipulate users into doing things they wouldn’t normally do. Common Dark UX Techniques & Examples: 🔸 "Roach Motel" – Making it easy to sign up but difficult to unsubscribe. 📌 Example: A subscription service that requires users to call customer support (instead of clicking a button) to cancel their membership. 🔸 "Disguised Ads" – Ads designed to look like actual website content. 📌 Example: A "Download" button that is actually an advertisement, leading users to a different product. 🔸 "Clickbait" – Misleading headlines that encourage users to click. 📌 Example: An article titled “You Won’t Believe What This Celebrity Did!” but provides unrelated or low-quality content. 🔸 "Hidden Costs" – Unexpected fees added during checkout. 📌 Example: A hotel booking website that adds "service fees" and "cleaning fees" at the last step of payment. 🔸 "Bait and Switch" – A website promises one thing but delivers something different. 📌 Example: A software website advertises a free version but forces users to pay to access basic features. 1.3 Ethics in AI-Generated Content AI tools can generate text and images, but ethical concerns arise when AI-generated content uses copyrighted materials without permission. 🔹 Ethical Issues with AI-Generated Images: AI often uses artworks without giving credit to original artists. Some AI-generated content is used commercially without artist consent. There is a lack of clear copyright laws governing AI content. 🔹 How to Use AI Ethically: ✅ Do not profit from AI-generated content without proper credit. ✅ Inform users if an image or text is AI-generated. ✅ Modify AI-generated content instead of using it exactly as produced. 📌 Example: If a designer uses AI-generated images for a website, they should edit the images and mention they were AI-assisted. 2. Credibility in Web Writing Credibility refers to how trustworthy and reliable a website is. A website with strong credibility is more likely to retain visitors and encourage engagement. Credibility is the measurement of the level of truth and validity of received messages (Hsieh & Li, 2020, p. 257) In some ways, credibility is like beauty: it’s in the eye of the beholder. You can’t touch, see, or hear credibility; it exists only when you make an evaluation of a person, object, or piece of information. But credibility isn’t completely arbitrary. Much like agreement in evaluating beauty, people often agree when evaluating a source’s credibility (Fogg, p. 122, 2003) 2.1 What Determines Credibility? According to Fogg (2003), web credibility depends on two main factors: ✔ Perceived Trustworthiness – The website should be honest, fair, and transparent. ✔ Perceived Expertise – The website should provide accurate, well-researched information. 🔹 Example of a Credible Website: A university website that provides verified research articles, proper citations, and author credentials. 🔹 Example of a Non-Credible Website: A blog making health claims without any references or medical backing. 2.2 How to Improve Website Credibility? 1⃣ Provide Clear Author Information  Include contact details, author bio, and credentials. 📌 Example: A financial blog should state whether the author is a certified financial analyst. 2⃣ Use Reliable Sources & Cite Them Information should be fact-checked and properly referenced. 📌 Example: A news article should cite government statistics instead of unverified social media posts. 3⃣ Keep Content Updated Websites should display the last updated date to indicate relevance. 📌 Example: A law firm website must regularly update legal information to reflect new laws. 4⃣ Avoid Overusing Advertisements Too many ads make a website seem spammy and untrustworthy. 📌 Example: A tech website that has pop-up ads covering the main content reduces credibility. 5⃣ Ensure Website Security Use HTTPS encryption and security badges to protect user data. 📌 Example: An online banking website should have SSL certification to assure users their data is secure. 3. Plagiarism in Web Writing Plagiarism is the act of copying someone else's work without giving proper credit. It is a serious ethical violation in both academic and professional writing. Ethical communication includes giving proper credit to the work of others. In both workplace and academic settings, plagiarism (representing the words, ideas, or perspectives of others as your own) is a serious breach of ethics. (Gurak & Lannon, p. 72, 2017) 3.1 Types of Plagiarism & Examples 1⃣ Global Plagiarism – Copying an entire work and passing it off as your own. 📌 Example: A student submits an entire Wikipedia article as their essay. 2⃣ Verbatim Plagiarism – Copying word-for-word without citation. 📌 Example: An online magazine copies an article from another website without quotes or attribution. 3⃣ Paraphrasing Plagiarism – Changing a few words but keeping the original meaning. 📌 Example: A blog rewrites another article by swapping synonyms without proper citation. 4⃣ Patchwork Plagiarism – Taking small sections from multiple sources and combining them without credit. 📌 Example: A research paper uses sentences from five different articles without citing any of them. 5⃣ Self-Plagiarism – Reusing one’s own previous work without disclosure. 📌 Example: A journalist publishes the same article on multiple platforms without mentioning it was previously published. FFP CORE 1. Fabrication (Making Up Results) Fabrication occurs when someone completely invents data, results, or findings instead of conducting actual research or experiments. Example: A scientist claims to have conducted a clinical trial on a new drug and reports excellent results. However, in reality, no such study was ever done, and the data was entirely made up. 2. Falsification (Manipulating or Tampering with Results) Falsification is when someone alters or modifies research data, images, or results to misrepresent findings. Example: A researcher conducts an experiment but doesn't get the expected results. To make the study appear successful, they delete certain data points, adjust figures, or modify images in a way that misleads others about the actual findings. 3. Plagiarism (Presenting Someone Else’s Work as Your Own) Plagiarism happens when a person takes someone else's words, ideas, or research and presents them as their own without proper credit. Example: A student copies entire paragraphs from an online article into their research paper without citing the source, making it seem like they wrote it themselves. These unethical practices can lead to serious consequences, including academic penalties, legal action, or loss of credibility in a professional career. 3.2 How to Avoid Plagiarism? ✅ Use Proper Citations – Quote and reference sources correctly. ✅ Paraphrase Correctly – Rewrite using your own words while preserving meaning. ✅ Use Plagiarism Detection Tools – Grammarly, Turnitin, and Scribbr can help detect accidental plagiarism. ✅ Give Credit for Images & Data – Always cite the original creator. 📌 Example: Instead of copying directly, a student writing a research paper should summarize key points and reference the original source. UNDERSTANDING YOUR AUDIENCE 1. Analyzing Audience and Purpose Before writing a technical or scientific document, it is crucial to analyze the audience and the purpose of the document. Consider the following questions: Understanding the Audience Who is the primary audience? (Who is the document intended for?) Who are the secondary readers? (Who else might read it?) What is my relationship with the audience? (E.g., formal, instructional, persuasive) How much technical knowledge does my audience have? Do they need background information? Do they belong to different cultures? (Cultural background may affect interpretation.) What medium will they use to read the document? (Printed, mobile, desktop?) Understanding the Purpose of the Document Is my document meant to inform, instruct, or persuade? Is the purpose primary or secondary? (E.g., an instruction manual primarily provides guidance but secondarily promotes a brand.) Do my readers need step-by-step instructions? Will my readers act immediately based on this information? Do they require specific details or just an overview? 2. Classification of Readers Technical and scientific audiences vary in expertise. Understanding these categories helps in tailoring communication effectively. 2.1 Experts Who are they? Professionals with in-depth knowledge and research experience. Have advanced understanding of terminology, theories, and methods. How to write for them? Use technical jargon and precise terminology without simplification. Present facts, figures, and data concisely. Use sophisticated graphics, tables, and charts. Example: Medical Report for Experts "The patient exhibited dyspnea, cyanosis, and tachycardia with a BP of 80/40 mmHg. EKG confirmed ventricular fibrillation, necessitating immediate defibrillation and administration of sodium bicarbonate." 2.2 Technicians Who are they? Have practical, hands-on experience but limited theoretical knowledge. Use specialized equipment for their work. How to write for them? Use diagrams, illustrations, and clearly labeled machine parts. Write in short sentences and simple vocabulary. Use imperative (command) voice in instructions. Example: Machine Manual for Technicians "To replace the motor, first disconnect the power. Remove the screws securing the panel and gently detach the motor. Insert the new motor, align it properly, and secure it with screws. Restore power and test functionality." 2.3 Operators Who are they? Workers who use the equipment but may not understand its technical details. Need step-by-step procedures and clear instructions. How to write for them? Provide clear and concise instructions. Use bullet points or numbered steps. Only include essential details to avoid confusion. Example: Assembly Instructions for Operators 1. Press the "Start" button. 2. Wait for the machine to calibrate (approx. 30 seconds). 3. Insert the raw material into the loading tray. 4. Press "Process" to begin operation. 2.4 Managers Who are they? Responsible for decision-making and coordination. Need summary-focused reports rather than technical details. How to write for them? Provide an executive summary (1-2 pages). Present information from most important to least important. Use graphs, figures, and financial/statistical summaries. Example: Business Report for Managers "Sales increased by 15% in Q2 due to the expansion into online platforms. Customer satisfaction surveys indicate an 80% approval rate. Key recommendations include further investment in digital marketing." 2.5 Professional Non-Experts Who are they? Professionals from other fields reading outside their area of expertise. Have a basic understanding but need context and background information. How to write for them? Balance between technical accuracy and general understanding. Use simple explanations alongside technical terms. Example: Legal Report for a Non-Technical Audience "The new data privacy law mandates that companies obtain explicit consent before collecting user data. Non-compliance could result in fines up to $500,000." 2.6 Laypersons Who are they? The general public without specialized knowledge. Read science articles, newspapers, and blogs. How to write for them? Use short sentences and everyday language. Avoid jargon or explain technical terms using metaphors. Engage the audience with stories or real-life examples. Example: Health Article for Laypersons "A heart attack happens when blood flow to the heart is blocked, like a traffic jam in your arteries. This can be dangerous, so eating healthy and exercising regularly can help keep your heart strong." 2.7 Students Who are they? Learners in high school or university who read technical material as part of their studies. How to write for them? Use technical terminology but provide explanations and context. Include graphs, figures, and illustrations to enhance understanding. Example: Physics Textbook for Students "Newton's Second Law states that force equals mass times acceleration (F=ma). This means the heavier an object, the more force is needed to move it. For example, pushing a bicycle requires less effort than pushing a car." 3. Audience Cultural Background Culture significantly impacts communication styles and web design preferences. 3.1 Communication Styles High-Context Cultures (e.g., Japan, China, Middle East) Implicit and indirect communication (meaning is derived from context). Heavy reliance on non-verbal cues (tone, gestures, setting). Focus on maintaining harmony (avoiding confrontation). Low-Context Cultures (e.g., USA, Germany, Scandinavia) Explicit and direct communication (meaning is clear and stated). Words carry most of the meaning (less reliance on context). Straightforward and task-oriented (clarity is prioritized). 3.2 Impact on Web Design Transparency & Navigation: o Low-context: Predictable menus, clear headings. o High-context: Artistic, flexible layouts, indirect navigation. Colour Usage: o Low-context: Neutral, minimal colours. o High-context: Bold, symbolic colours. Images & Visuals: o Low-context: Directly related to content. o High-context: Abstract, symbolic representations. Example: Low-context website: Amazon – clear navigation, minimal design. High-context website: Traditional Japanese websites – artistic, visual-heavy. Comparison of High-Context and Low-Context Cultures in Web Design Web design is heavily influenced by cultural communication styles. Countries with high- context cultures rely on indirect communication, symbolism, and aesthetics, while low- context cultures prefer clarity, direct messaging, and functionality. 1. Key Differences in Web Design Feature High-Context Culture Web Low-Context Culture Web Design (e.g., Japan, China, Design (e.g., USA, Middle East) Germany, UK) Transparency & Non-linear, creative navigation; Linear, structured, and Navigation users must explore to find predictable layout for easy information. navigation. Use of Images & Heavy reliance on images, Images are functional and Symbols animations, and cultural symbols. directly support the content. Text Density & More dense, less white space, and Minimalistic, spaced-out Content information presented in clusters. content with a focus on Organization readability. Colour Usage Bright and symbolic colours Neutral or professional representing emotions or colours like blue, grey, and traditions. white. Interaction & User Encourages deep interaction, Prioritizes efficiency—quick Experience sometimes requiring users to access to needed uncover hidden elements. information. 2. Justification with Examples Example 1: Transparency and Navigation Low-context website: Amazon (USA) o Clear menus, predictable search bars, and functional filters. o Users can find products quickly without needing visual cues. High-context website: Rakuten (Japan) o More crowded layout, lots of colours, and less linear navigation. o Users explore categories rather than searching directly. Example 2: Use of Images and Symbols Low-context website: Apple (USA, UK) o Simple visuals, straightforward product descriptions. o Focus on specifications rather than abstract design. High-context website: Xiaomi (China) o Uses large banners with symbolic imagery to create a storytelling experience. Example 3: Colour Usage Low-context website: Volkswagen (Germany) o Uses neutral colours (white, grey, black) to maintain professionalism. High-context website: Toyota (Japan) o Uses red (symbolic of good fortune in Japan) and cultural elements. Example 4: Interaction & User Experience Low-context website: BBC News (UK) o Headlines and clear sections for quick reading. High-context website: NHK News (Japan) o More compact, high-density information, and text-heavy layout. Conclusion  High-context cultures prioritize visual storytelling, cultural symbolism, and exploration, making their web design less structured but rich in meaning. Low-context cultures focus on clarity, directness, and efficiency, ensuring users find information quickly with minimal distractions.