Lecture II: The Beginnings of Classical Sociological Theory PDF

DR ANUP TRIPATHI The Beginnings of Classical Sociological Theory Sociological Theory Sociological theory is different from other explanations of social life e.g. religious explanations point to faith and re...

DR ANUP TRIPATHI The Beginnings of Classical Sociological Theory Sociological Theory Sociological theory is different from other explanations of social life e.g. religious explanations point to faith and revelation to justify their assertions In contrast, sociological theory or explanation relies on evidence from the senses and from the social world itself to arrive at its conclusions Distinguishing between Sociological Theory and Ideology A set of ideas that justifies good/bad, inferior/superior etc. Many theorists also have ideologies, although they may not state them explicitly Social Forces in the Development of Sociological Theory A. Political Revolutions Series of political revolutions ushered in by the French Revolution (1789) carried over through the 19th century Enormous impact on many of the societies Negative effects of such changes & not the positive consequence that attracted the attention of several early theorists United in their desire to restore order to the society Social Order: - Sought to find new bases of order in societies that had been overturned by the political Desired revolutions of 18th & 19th centuries Sought Issued Interest in the issue of social order was one of the major concerns of classical sociological theorist (esp. Comte and Durkheim) B. Industrial Revolution & the Rise of Capitalism Industrial Revolution swept through many western societies in the 19th and early 20th centuries Many interrelated developments that culminated in the transformation of the Western world from a largely agricultural to an overwhelmingly industrial system Large number of people left agriculture and took to industrial occupations in burgeoning factories  DR ANUP TRIPATHI Factories in turn were getting transformed by a long series of technological improvements Large economic bureaucracies arose to provide the services needed by the industry and the emerging capitalist economic system Within the capitalist system, a few profited greatly while the majority worked long hours for low wages A reaction against the industrial system and against capitalism in general followed Led to the labour movement as well as to various radical movements aimed at overthrowing the capitalism system Thus, industrial revolution, capitalism, and the reaction against them involved an enormous upheaval in Western societies The industrial revolution, capitalism, and Sociologists were preoccupied with these changes and the problems they created for the reaction against them! society as whole (Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim & Georg Simmel) Studied these problems and also endeavoured to develop programmes that would help to solve them C. The Rise of Socialism A set of changes aimed at coping with the excesses of the industrial system & capitalism Some sociologists favoured socialism as a solution to industrial problems (Marx) However, most were personally and intellectually opposed to it (Durkheim & Weber at least as it was envisioned by Marx) Recognized the problems within the capitalist society However, they sought social reform within capitalism rather than the social revolution argued for by Marx Feared socialism more than capitalism This fear played a great role in shaping sociological theory More than Marx’s support of the socialist alternative to capitalism  DR ANUP TRIPATHI In many cases, sociological theory developed as a reaction against Marxian, and more generally, against socialist theory D. Feminism High points of the feminist activity and writing occurred in the liberationist moments of modern western history 1780s and 1790s with the debates surrounding the American and French revolutions Far more organized and focused effort in the 1850s as part of the mobilization against slavery and for political rights of the middle class Massive mobilization for women’s suffrage and for industrial and civic reform legislations in the early 20th century (‘Progressive Era’ in the US- 1890s-1920s) Had an impact on the development of sociology Particularly on the work of a number of women in or associated with the field- Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, Anna Julia Cooper, Ida Wells-Barnett, Marianne Weber, Beatrice Potter Webb etc. Over time, their creations were pushed to the periphery of the profession, annexed, discounted, or written out of sociology’s public record by the men who were organizing sociology as a professional power base Feminist concerns filtered into sociology only on the margins, in the work of marginal male theorists or of the increasingly marginalized female theorists Sociologists like Spencer, Weber, Durkheim & many others made conservative responses to the feminist arguments going around them Often made issues of gender inconsequential by responding conventionally rather than critically in what they identified and promoted as sociology Responded in this manner even when women were writing a significant body of sociological theory! The history of gender politics in the profession- also a part of the history of male responses to feminist claims, is only now being written E. Urbanization  DR ANUP TRIPATHI As a result of the industrial revolution, large numbers of people in the 19th & 20th centuries were uprooted from their rural homes and moved to urban settings Presented many difficulties for those people who had to adjust to the urban life Expansion of cities produced severe urban problems Attracted the attention of many early sociologists (especially Weber & Simmel) Chicago School- the first major school of American Sociology F. Religious Change Social changes brought in by the political revolutions, industrial revolution & urbanization had a profound effect on religiosity Some early sociologists were actively & professionally involved in religion They wished to improve people’s lives through sociology Durkheim & Weber did some major works on religion Morality played a key role for Durkheim & Talcott Parsons Marx too had an interest in religiosity but his orientation was far more critical G. The growth of Science Increasing emphasis on science, not only in colleges and universities but also in the society as a whole Technological products of science were permeating every sector of life and science was acquiring more prestige! Sociologists from the very beginning were preoccupied with science (especially Comte, Durkheim, Spencer, Mead and Schutz) Many of them wanted to model sociology after the successful biological and physical sciences Debate in sociology between- Those who wholeheartedly accept the scientific model, & Those who thought that distinctive characteristics of social life made a wholesale adoption of scientific model difficult & unwise  DR ANUP TRIPATHI Intellectual Forces and the Rise of Sociological Theory The Enlightenment Critical development in terms of the later evolution of sociology Numerous long-standing beliefs and ideas, many of which related to social life, were overthrown and replaced The Enlightenment was a period of remarkable intellectual development and change in the philosophical thought Rousseau & Montesquieu- influenced by the two intellectual currents of 17th century-- philosophy & science 17th Century Philosophy (Rene Descartes, Hobbes & Locke) Emphasis on producing grand, general, & very abstract systems of ideas that made rational sense The later thinkers agreed that the systems of ideas should be general & should make rational sense However, they made greater efforts to derive their ideas from the real world & to test them there Combining empirical research with reason The model for this was science esp. Newtonian physics Belief that people could comprehend and control the universe by means of reason and empirical research Since the physical world is dominated by natural laws, its likely that the social world too is dominated by its laws It was up to the philosopher using reason and research to discover these social laws Once they understood how the social world worked, the Enlightenment thinkers had a practical goal- the creation of a better, more rational world Enlightenment thinkers inclined to reject beliefs in traditional authority  DR ANUP TRIPATHI They found traditional values and institutions as irrational i.e. contrary to human nature & inhibitive of human growth & development Their mission was to overcome these irrational systems Directly influenced the work of Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx The Conservative Reaction to the Enlightenment Counter-Enlightenment represented a virtual inversion of Enlightenment liberalism A strong anti-modernist sentiment especially in French sociology Louis de Bonald & Joseph de Maistre were disturbed by the revolutionary changes & yearned for a return to the peace & harmony of the Middle Ages God was the God was the source of society and hence reason was seen as inferior to traditional source; his creation religious beliefs should not be tampered with Since God had created the society, people should not tamper with it and should not try to change a holy creation The Conservatives turned away from the “naive” rationalism of the Enlightenment They not only identified the irrational aspects of social life but also assigned them positive value They regarded tradition, imagination, emotionalism and religion as useful and necessary components of social life Considered French Revolution & Industrial Revolution as disruptive forces Emphasized on ‘social order’ that became one of the central themes of the work of several sociologists Comte and Durkheim Contours of Sociological Theory We all try to make sense of the world and our place in it We don’t simply react to our situations in the world, we theorize about them Reflect upon, interpret, and represent symbolically our actions and interactions  DR ANUP TRIPATHI Sociological Theory is an abstract, symbolic representation of, and explanation of, social reality As Sociology students, sociological theory provides us with guidelines for thinking in a disciplined manner about the social world a) Deductive and Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning: Sociologists may theorise from general to particular Inductive Reasoning: Deriving general explanation or theory from a particular aspect of social life b) Ideology & Objectivity Ideology is a set of ideas that justifies judgements about good/bad, superior/inferior, better/worse etc. Ideology is thought to assert or legitimize the power of some group over another We all make ideological judgements in our lives Not all of these judgements are deliberate attempts to assert or maintain power over others in a direct, confrontational, prejudicial manner Particular & Total Ideologies Karl Mannhiem (1929) Particular ideologies involve systems of knowledge that deform or conceal facts e.g. McDonald’s & Coca Cola Total ideologies are systems of knowledge tied to the social/historical place and time of the individuals who espouse them, irrespective of good or bad intentions e.g. Fascism Ideology is not theory! However, as a knowledge system, an ideology can present problems for sociological theory Separating sociological knowledge from personal ideological positions is a problem that confronts many sociologists Ideological content does not necessarily make a theory wrong  DR ANUP TRIPATHI When the ideological content can be disentangled from the theory, the theory may still have some merit as an explanation Ralf Dahrendorf (1968) on Ideology Problem of ideologies within sociology is endemic Purpose of Sociology- (i) to understand society by using objective, scientific methods & (ii) to help individuals achieve ‘freedom & self-fulfilment’ Sociology has often paid for the scientific ambition to be objective by ignoring its intention to help people Data always need theoretical interpretation to make them relevant to non-sociologists To emancipate human beings requires empirical data to justify theoretical & ethical claims & recommendations c) Sociological Subjects Objectivity an ‘impossible obligation’ but one that sociologists must assume (Weber) Sociologists are both subjects & objects of sociology As subjects (theorists) they aspire to an objective view of society As objects (humans), they are rooted in a particular society & have personal beliefs The subjects & objects of sociological scrutiny are never static & may undergo changes as a result of sociological interest Positionality Sociologists mitigate the subject/object dilemma by declaring their evaluative stance on the issues or situations being investigated Sociologists have sought to participate in social change and not merely record it in a scientific fashion Ethical viewpoints matter! d) Research Traditions I. Positivism II. Idealism  DR ANUP TRIPATHI III. Critical Theory In practice, aspects of two or three research traditions may be combined in the work of any particular theorist.