BSC 105 Midterm Reviewer (Chapter 6 - Muscular System) PDF

BSC 105 – MIDTERM REVIEWER (CHAPTER 6 - MUSCULAR SYSTEM) THE FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF SKELETAL MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS MUSCLE ACTIVITY (TRUNK MUSCLES) 1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal PECTORALIS MAJOR...

BSC 105 – MIDTERM REVIEWER (CHAPTER 6 - MUSCULAR SYSTEM) THE FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF SKELETAL MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS MUSCLE ACTIVITY (TRUNK MUSCLES) 1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal PECTORALIS MAJOR muscles cross at least one joint. - adducts and flexes humerus RECTUS ABDOMINIS 2. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle - flexes vertebral column lies proximal to the joint crossed. EXTERNAL OBLIQUE - flexes and rotates vertebral column 3. All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments: the origin and the insertion. MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS (ARM/SHOULDER) 4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never push. BICEPS BRACHII - flexes elbow and supinates forearm 5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle BRACHIALIS insertion moves toward the origin. - flexes elbow DELTOID MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS - abducts arm (HEAD AND NECK) MUSCLES AND THEIR ACTIONS FRONTALIS (HIP/THIGH/LEG) - raises eyebrows ORBICULARIS OCULI ILIOPSOAS - blinks and closes eyes - flexes hip ORBICULARIS ORIS ADDUCTOR MUSCLES - closes and protrudes lips - adduct and medially rotate thigh TEMPORALIS SARTORIUS - closes jaw - flexes thigh on hip ZYGOMATICUS QUADRICEPS GROUP (VASTUS, MEDIALIS, INTERMEDIUS, LATERALIS, RECTUS FEMORIS) - raises corner of mouth - all extend knee - smiles - rectus femoris also flexes hip on thigh MASSETER TIBIALIS ANTERIOR - closes jaw - dorsiflexes and inverts foot BUCCINATOR EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS - compresses cheek (sucking) - extends toes - holds food between teeth during FIBULARIS MUSCLES chewing - plantar flex and evert foot STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID - flexes neck - laterally rotates head PLATYSMA - tenses skin of neck (as in shaving)  TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS SPECIAL MOVEMENTS FLEXION DORSIFLEXION - brings two bones closer together - upward flexion of the foot - decreases the angle of the joint - lifting the foot so that the superior - bending hinge joints (e.g. knee & surface approaches the shin elbow) or ball-and-socket joints (toward the dorsum) (e.g. the hip) PLANTAR FLEXION EXTENSION - pointing toes away from the head - opposite of flexion - increases angle between two INVERSION bones - turning sole of foot medially - typical straightening the elbow or knee EVERSION - turning sole of foot laterally HYPEREXTENSION - extension beyond 180 degrees SUPINATION - forearm rotates laterally so palm ROTATION faces anteriorly - shaking your head “no” - movement of a bone around its PRONATION longitudinal axis - forearm rotates medially so palm - common in ball-and-socket joints faces posteriorly ABDUCTION OPPOSITION - movement of a limb away from the - moving the thumb to touch the tips midline of other fingers on the same hand ADDUCTION - movement of limb toward the midline CIRCUMDUCTION - combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction  BSC 105 – MIDTERM REVIEWER (CHAPTER 7 - THE NERVOUS SYSTEM) FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONS: Serves as communication lines SENSORY INPUT among sensory organs, the brain - gathering information and spinal cord, and glands or - monitor changes (stimuli) occurring muscles inside and outside the body INTEGRATION FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION - processes and interprets sensory input and decides whether action SENSORY (AFFERENT) DIVISION is needed - Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system MOTOR OUTPUT Somatic Sensory (Afferent) Fibers - response or effect - carry information from the skin, - activates muscles or glands skeletal muscles, and joints Visceral Sensory (Afferent) Fibers - carry information from visceral CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM organs ORGANS: MOTOR (EFFERENT) DIVISION Brain and Spinal Cord - Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system organs to FUNCTIONS: effector organs (muscles and glands) Integration; command center - TWO SUBDIVISIONS: Interprets incoming sensory Somatic Nervous System information - voluntary Issues outgoing instructions - consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles PROTECTION OF THE CNS: Autonomic Nervous System Meninges - involuntary Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - automatically controls smooth Blood-brain barrier and cardiac muscles and glands - further divided into the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM sympathetic and parasympathetic - PNS consists of nerves and ganglia nervous system outside the CNS NERVES EXTENDING FROM THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD: Spinal Nerves – carry impulses to and from the spinal cord Cranial Nerves – carry impulses to and from the brain  12 CRANIAL NERVES 12 CRANIAL NERVES MNEMONICS I. OLFACTORY Oh II. OPTIC Oh III. OCULOMOTOR Oh IV. TROCHLEAR To V. TRIGEMINAL Touch VI. ABDUCENS And VII. FACIAL Feel VIII. AUDITORY A IX. GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL Girls X. VAGUS Vagina XI. ACCESSORY Ah XII. HYPOGLOSSAL Heaven PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTION  BSC 105 – MIDTERM REVIEWER (CHAPTER 8 - SPECIAL SENSES – THE EYE) EXTERNAL AND ACCESSORY INTERNAL STRUCTURES AND THEIR STRUCTURES OF THE EYE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS: THE EYEBALL FUNCTIONS 1. FIBROUS LAYER – outside layer EYELIDS 2. VASCULAR LAYER – middle layer - protects the eyes 3. SENSORY LAYER – inside layer EYELASHES FIBROUS LAYER OF THE EYEBALL - protecting the eye from dust, - Outermost layer of the eyeball debris, and to prevent dry eye - tarsal glands produce an oily Consists of: secretion that lubricates the eye SCLERA - thick white connective tissue layer CONJUNCTIVA - seen anteriorly as the “white of - secretes mucus to lubricate the the eye” eye and keep it moist - lines the eyelids and covers part CORNEA of the outer surface of the eyeball - “window” - transparent, central anterior LACRIMAL APPARATUS portion - protects the eye by keeping it - allows for light to pass through moist - repairs itself easily - consists of lacrimal gland and ducts VASCULAR LAYER OF THE EYEBALL LACRIMAL GLAND CHOROID - produces lacrimal fluid (tears) - contains a dark pigment that - Tears prevents light from scattering - function of tears: - cleanse, protect, CILIARY BODY moisten, lubricate the eye - contains ciliary muscle and ciliary body EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLES - black pigmented body that - control the movement of each appears in halo encircling lens eyeball IRIS - regulates amount of light entering the eye - pigmented layer that gives eye color PUPIL - allows light to enter the eye  SENSORY LAYER OF THE EYEBALL AQUEOUS HUMOR - Innermost layer of the eyeball - watery fluid found between lens and cornea RETINA - helps maintain intraocular pressure - two layers of retina: - provides nutrients for the lens and 1. OUTER PIGMENTED LAYER cornea - absorbs light and prevents it from scattering VITREOUS HUMOR - gel-like substance posterior to the lens 2. INNER NEURAL LAYER - prevents the eye from collapsing - contains receptor cells - helps maintain intraocular pressure (photoreceptors) which are the Rods and Cones DISORDERS OF THE EYE - Electrical signals pass from EMMETROPIA photoreceptors via a two-neuron - eye focuses images correctly on chain the retina 1. Bipolar Neurons 2. Ganglion Cells MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS) - distant objects appear blurry OPTIC NERVE - light from those objects fails to - where signals leave reach the retina and are focused in the retina toward the front of it brain - results from an eyeball that is too OPTIC DISC long - blind spot - where the optic nerve HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTEDNESS) leaves the eyeball - near objects are blurry, whereas - cannot see images distant objects are clear focused on the optic - distant objects are focused disc behind the retina RODS - results from an eyeball that is too - allow vision in dim light and short or from a “lazy lens” peripheral vision - all reception is in gray tones ASTIGMATISM - images are blurry CONES - results from light focusing as lines, - allow for detailed color vision not points, on the retina because - densest in the center of the retina of unequal curvatures of the cornea or lens HUMORS – fluids that fill the interior of the eyeball and help maintain its shape LENS - main focusing apparatus of the eye - divides the eye into two chambers (the anterior (aqueous segment & posterior vitreous segment)  BSC 105 – MIDTERM REVIEWER (CHAPTER 8 - SPECIAL SENSES – THE EAR) PARTS OF THE EAR AND THEIR Functions: FUNCTIONS - Transmit vibrations from tympanic membrane to the fluids of the inner ear THREE AREAS OF THE EAR: - Vibrations travel from the hammer → 1. External (Outer) Ear anvil → stirrup → oval window of inner ear 2. Middle Ear 3. Internal (Inner) Ear INTERNAL (INNER) EAR - includes sense organs for hearing EXTERNAL (OUTER) EAR and balance - involved only in collecting sound waves Bony labyrinth (osseous labyrinth) - filled with perilymph AURICLE (PINNA) - membranous labyrinth is - shell-shaped structure surrounding suspended in perilymph and the auditory canal opening contains endolymph - Consists of: EXTERNAL ACOUSTIC MEATUS - Cochlea - also known as auditory canal - Vestibule - narrow chamber in the temporal - Semicircular canals bone - lined with skin and ceruminous (earwax) glands MIDDLE EAR (TYMPANIC CAVITY) - air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the temporal bone - involved only in the sense of hearing - Pharyngotympanic tube (Auditory Tube) - links middle ear cavity with the throat - equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity so the eardrum can vibrate Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity: 1. Malleus (hammer) 2. Incus (anvil) 3. Stapes (stirrup)  BSC 105 – MIDTERM REVIEWER (CHAPTER 9 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM) MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS AND PINEAL GLAND THEIR FUNCTIONS - secretes melatonin 1. Melatonin HYPOTHALAMUS - trigger the body’s sleep/wake - produces releasing hormones and cycle inhibiting hormones - coordinate the hormones of - regulate the anterior pituitary fertility in humans and to inhibit the reproductive system until maturity PITUITARY GLAND occurs ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES THYROID GLAND 1. Growth Hormone (GH) - Produces two hormones: - stimulates growth (especially of 1. Thyroid hormone bones and muscles) and - stimulates metabolism metabolism 2. Calcitonin 2. Prolactin (PRL) - reduces blood calcium ion level - stimulates milk production 3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) PARATHYROID GLAND - stimulates production of ova and - secretes parathyroid hormone sperm 1. Parathyroid hormone 4. Luteinizing hormone (LH) - raises blood calcium ion level - stimulates ovaries and testes 5. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) THYMUS - stimulates thyroid gland 1. Thymosin 6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone - “Programs” T lymphocytes (ACTH) - largest in infants and children - stimulates adrenal cortex to - decreases in size throughout secrete glucocorticoids adulthood POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES ADRENAL GLANDS 1. Oxytocin - sit on top of the kidneys - stimulates contraction of uterus Adrenal Medulla and the milk “let-down” reflex 1. Epinephrine and Norepinephrine 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - raise blood glucose level; increase - promotes retention of water by rate of metabolism; constrict kidneys certain blood vessels Adrenal Cortex 1. Glucocorticoids - increase blood glucose level  PANCREAS 1. Insulin - reduces blood glucose level 2. Glucagon - raises blood glucose level GONADS Testes 1. Androgens - support sperm formation; development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics Ovaries 1. Estrogens - stimulate uterine lining growth; development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics 2. Progesterone - promotes growth of uterine lining