African Marriage: An Issue in Development (PDF)

African Marriage An Issue in Development Lecture 7 AK Awedoba: July 2016  Content of Lecture The Importance of Marriage  Marriage and Gender Issues  Types and Forms of Marriage Exotic marriages: infant betrothals, widow inheritance, ghost marriage,...

African Marriage An Issue in Development Lecture 7 AK Awedoba: July 2016  Content of Lecture The Importance of Marriage  Marriage and Gender Issues  Types and Forms of Marriage Exotic marriages: infant betrothals, widow inheritance, ghost marriage, sister exchange  Marriage& Sexual Rules: Exogamy, Endogamy & Incest  Bridewealth Mass wedding in a Ghanaian Church  Questions to ponder over In what ways can African marriage be rightly regarded as a gender issue? To what extent does preoccupation with reproduction explain African exotic forms of marriage? Why does bridewealth continue to be an issue in Africa today? To what extent would its absence contribute to conjugal harmony or discord. From African Perspectives: What is Marriage? In southern Ghana people talk of ‘Engagement.’ What is this? Read ‘A Ghanaian-centric Clarification of the Marriage Ceremony’ by Bernard Asher http://lifestyle.myjoyonline.com/pages/relations hips/201202/81175.php Accessed: February 7, 2012. See Sakai for copy  Guinea Bissau Marriage: How Typical He was 14 when the girl entered his … hut and placed a plate in front of him containing an ancient recipe. To have refused, explained the old man.., would have dishonored his family -- and in any case, why would he want to choose his own wife? In this archipelago of 50 islands.. off the western rim of Africa, it's women, not men, who choose. They make their proposals public by offering their grooms-to-be a dish of … fish, marinated in red palm oil. … he takes a bite and is married. POSTED: Feb. 1, 2007 CNN International.com  DEFINING MARRIAGE The Notes and Queries (1951) definition: "a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners.” Implications: 1. a pairing of (2) two; 2. Living individuals; 3. Union of opposite sex couple; 4. Union of adults; 5. Objective of institution: - reproduction. A Traditional Definition, but how current or universal? Does it accommodate all marriage practices known to Africans? The Catholic church abides by this definition, but some Westerners have since moved on as they recognise same sex marriages. Reasons Why Definition is Unsatisfactory: 1. African Marriage involves not only bride & groom but also their respective natal families. 2. Unusual [exotic] forms of marriage exist. EXOTIC FORMS OF MARRIAGE Child betrothal: in some African societies infants may be given out in marriage. Examples can be found in Ghana too; Woman-woman marriage: a woman may wed another woman resulting in female husbands. This is uncommon now, but once widespread among African peoples – e.g. Lovedu, Nuer, Dinka. [NB: It was not a lesbian issue] Ghost Marriages: a woman may be married to a person already dead– i.e. a ghost.  EXOTIC MARRIAGES (cont) Secondary Marriages: Levirate - widow required to procreate with her deceased husband’s jnr. bro; the issues are recognised as the deceased’s children. Widow Inheritance: deceased husband’s brother marries the widow. There’s also Widower Inheritance (Sororate) Espousal to a deity: A girl may be espoused to a god or its priest, as in the case of trokosi. Polygyny: Men may be allowed to marry more than one wife. Used to be common; in some societies wives bring their sisters, cousins & nieces into the marriage. Less common now, but it used to be the ideal. How Acceptable are exotic marriages  Dothese forms of marriage infringe anyone’s rights or deny choices?  Do any of them involve coercion: forcing people into marriages that they object to?  Dothese marriages pose problems for any of the parties - couples & children? If answer is yes, then legitimate concerns for development exist. Conjugal Rights & Obligations Marriage establishes rights & obligations betw. couples & their families which are regulated by social & cultural norms. Assertion/management of these rights & obligations has implications for well- being of individuals: spouses, children, & kin. Critical question:  How far do they take account of social change and globalisation?  Cohabitation: Traditionally Cohabitation not endorsed and did not establish marital rights. However the Property Rights of Spouses Bill recognises cohabitation. Section 3 (1) states: Cohabitation refers to a situation in which a man and woman hold themselves out to the public to be man and wife. (2) Persons who have cohabited for a period of five years or more shall be deemed to be spouses and have the rights of spouses for the purposes of this Act.  What About Polygyny ? Polygamy: marriage to more than one. It is bigamy: illegal in the West to have more than one wife/husband. But does this not amount to denying a choice to individuals? [Christianity may object to polygyny but Islam does not] If in the West homosexual marriage is allowed, why not polygyny! Many people condemn polygyny for being unfair to women and militating against women’s interests. But some people, including women, see nothing wrong. Case of Kenya: Polygyny & the Law MPs voted into law the practice of men having more than one wife. Traditionally, husband needed consent of the first wife to take second wife. Now that consent is unnecessary. Read 1. ‘President Uhuru Kenyatta signs Kenya polygamy law’ http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-27206590 2. How Kenyans are reacting to legalised polygamy http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa- 27939037 Malawi Debates Ban on Polygamy Gender Minister says: a ban was necessary to prevent women from being abused in polygamous relationships. She said problems occurred because men could not give their full attention to more than one woman.’ Spokesman for the Muslim Association of Malawi told the BBC the proposed law would discriminate against the country's Muslim minority. He said with about 6% more women than men in Malawi, if polygamy were banned, many women would be left without a husband and become prostitutes.  Perceptions of Polygyny as Good Some people do not feel polygyny is bad. Parents and siblings of husbands see differently from the kinfolk of wives. Some wives approve. Mende (Sierra Leone) women traditionally encouraged husbands to have several wives; monogamous husbands were not highly respected. Indeed, a senior wife had control over junior wives and it was in her interest for her husband to have several wives. Some women feel that having co-wife means having a helper & not having to bear the burden of household chores alone.  Polygyny: Questions Raised - Is a polygynous man able to satisfy all his wives sexually, emotionally and economically? Conjugal Roster? - Should a man take more wives than his resources can cater for? [Not an easy question] - Polygyny vrs. family planning: It can mean high dependency ratio - wives trying to outdo each other in having more children? - Can bring about wasteful competition between wives, each demanding more than her co-wives. 44 year old Mbele and His 4 Wives married simultaneously The South African who married 4 Zulu businessman Milton Mbele married 4 women aged between 22 and 35 in Ntlane village in Kwa-Zulu Natal in one ceremony. Miss Cele, one of the wives, told the press: “We don't see anything unusual about our marriage. We agreed to marry him at the same time because we love him,“ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8272450.stm Accessed 25th Sept. 2009 Polygamy is common in parts of Kwa-Zulu Natal but only the first wife is legally recognised.  REASONS FOR MARRYING Marriage may confer status, prestige and recognition on the parties involved. In many African societies, even today, full respect is denied unmarried adults. Marriage in the past was rite of passage for some, marking transition from child- hood to responsible citizenship. Economic reasons: A rigid division of labour according to sex implies that a person would not be able to live a customarily decent life if s/he has no spouse.  ADDITIONAL REASONS Love/companionship: Eg: an old couple Procreation: Need to bear children; still a paramount reason for African marriage. Political & Alliance motives: Marriage creates/cements alliances within society. One reason why chiefs were given wives and could not refuse; In some societies marriages [ie. Balobedu] were agreed in infancy. Failure to marry person prescribed as one’s spouse created tensions. Domestic Rights Abuses Associated with marriage are domestic rights concerns. They are not new and not exclusive to Africa. Recently they have become a public concern, thanks to NGOs, & women’s groups. Domestic Violence takes varied forms: Physical abuse, Psychological abuse, Economic abuse, etc: Examples: Beatings, threatening language, insults & denigrations, denial of needs, rape, killings, torture, burning, abandonment, Read The Current State of Domestic Violence in Ghana. See Sakai LMS Concerns about domestic violence against women & children resulted in laws for protection & prevention of abuses. Some men have also been victims of domestic violence. Ghana set up WAJU and later DOVVSU [Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit] in response. Domestic Violence Bill was passed in 2007 The Paradox of Wife Beating A report of the Ghana Multiple Cluster Survey (MICS) revealed that a significant percentage of women said wife beating was justified. 47 % of women believed that a husband is justified in beating his wife. "This belief is held among...women in rural areas (57%).. urban areas (36%)“ – Dep. Govt. Statistician. The report indicated acceptance of domestic violence was highest in Upper West region (76%) and lowest in Gt Accra region (28%) Source: GNA - 18 June 2008 Case of Levirate & Wife Inheritance Wife inheritance was meant to guarantee conjugal stability for a widow and enable her to continue to benefit from her deceased husband’s property and lineage resources. Good intention, but is it by choice or coercion? In some cases widow can choose from among dead husband’s junior brothers; if she is unwilling she is not compelled. This is the case of some Northern Ghanaian communities. Four men assault brother’s widow for refusing to marry one of them  Four brothers in Bugri, in the Garu-Tempane district of the Upper East Re-gion, brutally assaulted their late brother's wife for refusing to marry any of them.  On Saturday, October 17, they marched to her house and subjected her to beatings until she became unconscious. Using sticks, cudgels, belts and ropes, they hit the widow, Madam Ayampoka Akolgo, 42, all over the body, amid accusations and shouts of "prostitute", "witch", "you can't kill, us go away". Lawyer fights 'widow sex' tradition in Malawi: 'Widow cleansing'..a widow is expected to have sexual relations, "in order to cleanse her,.. "There is a belief that if she does not sleep with someone, the spirit of her dead husband will come and visit upon her and her family will be cursed,..". White says that the practice is not forced upon widows. Instead,.. the tradition has become so much part of the culture that widows themselves call for it. "It's a mindset issue," says White... they've told me, 'I don't want to die, I don't want a curse to come to my husband.' They cry to be cleansed."  Did Widows always have choice? In some societies, widow had to accept the husband’s brother/cousin. It was reported from Kenya that widows who did not wish to marry the brother- in-law could not prevent it. Likewise an unwilling brother may be compelled morally to accept a widow.  Perhaps he’s already happily married;  Perhaps his religion forbids polygyny;  Perhaps widow is too old/unattractive and therefore unappealing.  Infant Betrothals: Its Dangers Among Konkomba & Bimoba these marriages were once common. They implied: 1. Zero Choice: A child bride can’t appreciate implications of marriage to an older person. Where is her right to choose. 2. Elopements: On reaching their teens and discovering that the husband is too old, betrothed girls these days tend to elope with more desirable men. This precipitates needless conflict within communities. 3. Teenage Marriages: betrothed girls may be rushed into conjugal life by hasty, over anxious husbands fearful of losing brides if they did not consummate marriage quickly. There are several consequences for this: CONSEQUENCES OF INFANT BETROTHAL See Case in the Course Wedsite  Teenager dropouts: affected teenage- brides often drop out of school willingly or more often under pressure;  Teenage Mothers: physically & psycho- logically, the teenage mother is too young for childbirth & motherhood;  Poor Health: teenage mothers and their children tend to suffer chronic poor health and poverty. Forced marriages increasing in Northern Region Source: GNA: Dated February, 2010. The Acting Northern Reg. Director of (CHRAJ),.. has expressed concern about the increasing rate of forced marriages in the Eastern Corridor of the region. He said.. such cases were recorded at Bimbilla and.. at Yendi, Saboba and Zabzugu. Mr. X… said most of the victims were between 10 and 17 years in contravention of the children's Act, (Act 560). He attributed the situation to age-long customs and traditions. Mr. X said … the practice was being fuelled by men who claimed they had invested in the upbringing of the girls.  MARRIAGE RULES & CHOICE Many societies have rules that regulate choice of marriage partners. How acceptable are these rules and norms? Examples: exogamy (and incest) and endogamy Reminder: Development is about choice. Do exogamy, incest & endogamy affect marriage choices? The answer is yes.  The Case of Exogamy Exogamy (rule of exclusion) specifies the group within which members cannot intermarry due to perceived kinship relations. In many African societies, but by no means all, the clan and more often the lineage are exogamic. However, some societies are not exogamous; marriage between lineage cousins is permitted. Some allow for first cousin (parallel) marriages. Some societies are exogamous but permit marriage between cross cousins.  INCEST: Good or Bad? Incest prohibits sex between people related by blood or marriage ties. The span of the social unit within which incest applies varies. Usually it applies to: 1. The immediate family – parents, grand- parents, siblings and their children; 2. The spouses of parents and spouses of siblings.  In other cases Incest applies to clan & lineage members. - In most societies incest is a moral issue. - In some societies it is a crime that is severely sanctioned. - In others, it was ritual matter to be punished by the gods and ancestors. Regrettably the media are full of stories of incest these days. Something seems to have gone wrong. Case: Father impregnates daughter and Lands in Jail. A 45-year old mechanic,.. Agyepong, who alleg- edly engaged in an incestuous relationship with his daughter, impregnating her twice &aborting one of the pregnancies, has been remanded in custody by an Accra Circuit court. Agyepong was said to have impregnated the 18- year old girl... in March 2010 and aborted it and later attempted to abort a second preg- nancy.. but neighbours.. got wind of it gave him up to the police. Source: Daily Graphic, Feb. 16th 2011: p.19