Lecture 6: Altered States of Consciousness PDF

Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) Type Status In progress Hypnosis Hypnosis: social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions,...

Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) Type Status In progress Hypnosis Hypnosis: social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur Hypnotic susceptibility Correlated with measures of imagery vividness and absorption – people who are hypnotically susceptible tend to have rich fantasy lives and easily become absorbed in the imaginary events of a novel or movie Hypnotic Recovery of Memories: Unpredictable Results Hypnosis may boost recall Used to help witness in Chowchilla school bus kidnapping case to successfully recall kidnapper’s license plate But can also cause people to construct false memories and to increase their confidence in these false memories Hypnotized witnesses may end up testifying confidently to events they never experienced Latter is particularly problematic because highly hypnotizable subjects are especially vulnerable to false memory suggestions Hypnotherapy: Clinical applications of hypnosis Hypnosis quite successful in treating physical disorder (e.g., warts, headaches, asthma). Not so successful in treating psychological disorders (e.g., smoking, overeating, alcoholism) Recovery rate for latter increases though disorders (e.g., smoking, overeating, alcoholism) when combined with other therapies like systematic desensitization Hidden observer issue in hypnosis Research by Hilgard suggests that a dissociated part of the hypnotized person (the hidden observer) is aware of what is happening even when person is ostensibly unaware Ice water study: person kept smiling while hidden observer wrote, “This is agony, let me out!” Lemon study: person seemed to be enjoying “orange,” while hidden observer yelled out “You’ve just squirted acid in my mouth!” Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) 1  Use of hypnosis in pain control → Use of Hypnosis in child birth Standard hypnotherapy Hypnobirthing: combination of self-hypnosis and childbirth education A number of studies have indicated that hypnobirthing is associated with shorter hospital stays, shorter length of labor, reduction in self-reported pain, reduced epidural and analgesic use Mechanism: There are sensory and emotional components of pain perception 💡 Sensory component is mediated by somatosensory cortex 💡 Cognitive/emotional component is mediated by the anterior cingulate cortex and the prefrontal cortex fMRI studies using hypnotic suggestion found that a decrease in the unpleasantness of pain reduced the activation of the anterior cingulate cortex without affecting the activity of the somatosensory cortex Hallucinogens History Used in Aztec, Mayan, Incan, West African, South Asian, and Egyptian societies since ancient times. To promote physical and mental healing To induce spiritual experiences and access “altered states of consciousness” 1960s emergence of counterculture movement led to widespread usage of hallucinogens in the US Social/cultural differences in use of hallucinogens Largely part of underground lifestyle in the West Openly used for spiritual purposes in other parts of the world N.B.: Psychedelics/hallucinogens are a specific subclass known to induce distortion of perception/altered states of consciousness Types of Hallucinogens LSD: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide Drug action: Stimulates serotonergic and dopaminergic receptors Positive effects: Causes perceptual distortions and hallucinations: “altered states of consciousness” Emotions can vary from euphoria to detachment or panic Sense of self may dissolve, as does boundary between oneself and external world Research has indicated that LSD may be effective for treating anxiety due to terminal illness, alcoholism, and cluster headaches Adverse effects: No documented fatalities from pharmacological action of LSD, but behavioral fatalities and suicides can occur May trigger panic attacks and extreme anxiety (“bad trips”); flashbacks May trigger psychotic break, especially in those with family history of schizophrenia Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) 2  MDMA (“Ecstasy”) Drug action: Causes release of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, and blocks their reabsorption Positive effects: Emotional elevation, disinhibition, feelings of connectedness with everyone Research has indicated that MDMA may be effective for treating PTSD Adverse effects: Dehydration, overheating, and increase in blood pressure can cause death, especially when combined with dancing at raves “Ecstasy” pills may be cut with dangerous chemicals Potential damage to serotonin-producing neurons, leading to increased risk of depression and sleep problems Memory impairments Psilocybin (“Magic Mushrooms”) Drug action: Stimulates serotonin receptors Positive effects: Causes euphoria, perceptual distortions, hallucinations May induce spiritual experiences Marsh Chapel Experiment on Harvard Divinity School students in 1962 Participants reported profound religious experiences In 25-year follow-up, all of the participants described experience as having elements of “a genuine mystical nature and characterized it as one of the high points of their spiritual life” Single administration induced significant increase in personality dimension of openness to experience that persisted for over a year May be effective in treating depression and OCD Adverse effects: May cause nausea, panic attacks, confusion, and psychotic episodes, leading to accidents and suicide attempts Psychedelic Therapy Abram Hoffer study in the 1960’s Gave alcoholics a small dose of mescaline, then deliberately induced peak experiences by means of music, poetry, painting – whatever used to produce peak experiences before the person became alcoholic ➔50% were supposedly permanently cured Moratorium on research in this area from early 1970s to early 2000s due to sociopolitical factors However, resurgence of interest and research in this area in recent years, in particular with regard to use of hallucinogens – especially MDMA and LSD – to treat substance abuse, PTSD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, cluster headaches, and emotional suffering associated with terminal illness Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) 3  Drug-Induced Ego Dissolution Short-term effects: Psychedelic drugs in the short run are known to produce dramatic effects on self-consciousness, especially at higher doses This phenomenon has been called “drug-induced ego dissolution” (DIED) It is described as a loss of one’s sense of self and self-world boundaries, together with a concomitant oceanic feeling of “oneness” or “unity Phenomenologically, this is similar in many ways to the dissolving of the sense of self in meditation Long-term effects: May permanently transform one’s views of reality – or not That is, the experience may produce “state” changes or “trait” changes The latter can happen in large because the insights gained during these experiences tend to take on a special authority It’s like a revealed truth, absolute knowledge, rather than just an opinion Mystical experiences commonly also have this quality, which William James called “the noetic quality” Neurological Correlates of DIED Psychedelics in general bind to a particular type of serotonin receptor, 5-HT2A Serotonin is a “feel good” neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the regulation of mood, sleep, memory, and many other functions There are receptors in your brain that are configured to receive serotonin Other ligands apart from serotonin – such as psychedelics – can also bind to these receptors Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) 4  Drugs that bind to receptors can either facilitate or inhibit action: psychedelics facilitate or enhance serotonergic activity 💡 This triggers a cascade effect…This cascade results in the default mode network being downregulated 💡 Again, the DMN is a tightly linked set of structures connecting the prefrontal to other parts of the cortex and to older, deeper structures As discussed earlier, this network is a center of self-reflection and is strongly tied to the narrative self, that is, it knits together the story of who we are Michael Pollan has claimed that if the ego has an address, it’s in the default mode network In experiences of DIED (as is the case with meditation), the DMN goes offline This means there is a collapse of the highly organized neural circuits within the DMN and in connections between the DMN and other regions of the brain As a result, other networks in the brain that normally would only communicate through this hub, start communicating directly to each other For instance, the visual cortex might start talking to the auditory cortex or the somatosensory cortex, and suddenly you’re seeing music or feeling it as something palpable In addition, the temporary rewiring of the brain in the absence of the DMN regulator or central controller allows for greater cognitive flexibility (entropic brain theory) Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness As discussed earlier, various types of nonconscious processing are associated with suppression of or reduced activity in parts of the frontal and parietal cortices Hypnosis is associated with reduced activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate and reduced connections between various regions of the frontal cortex that are part of the default mode network (self-awareness) and the motor cortex Non-lucid dreaming, in comparison with lucid dreaming, is associated with reduced activity in areas of the prefrontal and temporoparietal lobes involved in self-referential processes Study by Michael C. Anderson found that in repression, the prefrontal cortex (executive control) disengages processing in the hippocampus (memory) Other important brain structures: Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) 5  Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) Forms “collar” around front part of corpus callosum Functions: Integrates cognitive and affective information Awareness and processing of conflicting information Selective attention Insular cortex → Lies deep within the lateral sulcus. Functions: Self-awareness, Consciousness, Emotion regulation Lecture 6 : ASC (Altered States of Consciousness) 6