Lecture 5 - 4104 (2023-24) (2) Research Designs, Topics and Questions PDF

Lecture 4 – GIA 4104 RESEARCH DESIGNS, TOPICS and QUESTIONS O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 1  Research Designs Research Designs can be: Qualitative Quantitative Mixed...

Lecture 4 – GIA 4104 RESEARCH DESIGNS, TOPICS and QUESTIONS O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 1  Research Designs Research Designs can be: Qualitative Quantitative Mixed (i.e both Qualitative and Quantitative) The process of using mixed methods is referred to as Triangulation O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 2 Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 3  Differences in Research Designs Difference 1: The nature of the data used – Quantitative research uses Hard Data while qualitative research used Soft Data. Difference 2: The language of the research – Quantitative research uses a positivist (based on scientific evidence) language which speaks of hypotheses, variables, and measures of central tendency (mean and std. deviation etc). O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 4 Qualitative research uses the language of cases and contexts which are useful in explaining details. Difference 3: What we want to accomplish in the study. In a quantitative study our task is to verify or falsify a relationship or hypothesis (i.e there is a negative relationship between social class and deaths fromcovid 19). In a qualitative study we may seek to explain other reasons for this negative relationship. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 5 Difference 4: The logical path of the research. In quantitative research the process consists of logical sequential steps. (Linear pattern). i.e methodology→ data collection→ analysis In qualitative research the process may be cyclical, iterative, and back and forth (non linear) O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 6  Choosing a Research Method Which method you choose will depend on ✓your research questions ✓your underlying philosophy of research (What you think is important i.e accept reject or reasons) ✓your preferences and skills Your approach may be influenced by your colleagues’ views, your organisation’s approach, your supervisor’s beliefs, and your own experience There is no right or wrong answer to choosing your research methods O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 7  Choosing a Research Method Whatever method you choose for your research, you need to consider five issues: What is the unit of analysis? For example, country, company or individual. Are you relying on universal theory or local knowledge? i.e. will your results be “generalizable”, and produce universally applicable results, or are there local factors that will affect your results? O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 8  Will theory or data come first? Will you read the literature first, and then develop your theory, or will you gather your data and develop your theory from that? (N.B. this will likely be an iterative process) Will your study be cross-sectional or longitudinal? Are you looking at one point in time, or changes over time? Will you verify or falsify a theory? O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 9 Quantitative Approaches O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 10  Quantitative Approaches – Some things to Note Attempt to explain phenomena by collecting and analysing numerical data. Tells you if there is a “difference” but not necessarily why Data collected are always numerical (or must be converted to numerical values) and analysed using statistical methods. If there are no numbers involved, its not quantitative. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 11  Employs randomisation to reduce subjective bias. Some types of research lend themselves better to quantitative approaches than others. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 12 Quantitative data: Data sources include Surveys where there are a large number of respondents (esp where you have used a Likert scale) Observations (counts of numbers and/or coding data into numbers) Secondary data (government data; Stats bureau; Bank of Guyana.) Analysis techniques include hypothesis testing, correlations means, standard deviations etc O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 13 Likert Scale O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 14 What are you looking for? Generally, either a difference (between/within groups) or a correlation O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 15 What quantitative researchers worry about Is the sample size big enough? Have I used the correct statistical test? Are the results generalisable? Are the results/methods/results reproducible? Am I measuring things the right way? O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 16 What’s wrong with quantitative research? Some things can’t be measured – or measured accurately Doesn’t tell you why Can be impersonal – no engagement with human behaviours or individuals Data can be static – snapshots of a point in time Sometimes it only tells a version of the truth (or a lie?) “Lies, damned lies and statistics” – persuasive power of numbers O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 17 Qualitative Approaches O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 18 Qualitative Approaches Any research that doesn’t involve numerical data Instead uses words, pictures, photos, videos, audio recordings, field notes, generalities, peoples’ own views and words. Tends to start with a broad question rather than a specific hypothesis Develops theory rather than start with one → inductive rather than deductive O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 19 Using qualitative data Facilitate exploration how and why things happened No need for large sample sizes (in comparison to quantitative research) Some issues may arise, such as ✓Respondents providing inaccurate or false information – or saying what they think the researcher wants to hear ✓Ethical issues (i.e bias and influence) may be more problematic as the researcher is usually closer to participants ✓Researcher objectivity may be more difficult to achieve O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 20 Sources of qualitative data Interviews (structured, semi-structured or unstructured) Focus groups Questionnaires or surveys Secondary data, including diaries, self-reporting, written accounts of past events/archive data and company reports; Direct observations – may also be recorded (video/audio) Ethnography – studying peoples their customs beliefs etc O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 21 Analysing qualitative data Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or behavioural data to classify, summarize and tabulate the data. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories presented by respondents taking into account context of each case and different experiences of each respondent. In other words, narrative analysis is the revision of primary qualitative data by researcher. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all types of written text. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 22 What qualitative researchers worry about Have we coded my data correctly? Have we managed to capture the situation in a realistic manner? Have we described the context in sufficient detail? Have we managed to see the world through the eyes of my participants? O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 23 What’s wrong with qualitative research? It can be very subjective It can’t always be repeated It can’t always be ‘generalisable’ It can’t always give you definite answers in the way that quantitative research can It can be easier to carry out (or hide) ‘bad’ (poor quality) qualitative research than ‘bad’ quantitative research O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 24 Triangulation O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 25  Triangulation refers to the use of more than one approach to the investigation of a research question in order to enhance confidence in the findings. increases credibility of research. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 26  EFFECTS OF TRIANGULATION By combining multiple observers, theories, methods, and empirical materials, researchers can hope to overcome the weakness or intrinsic biases and the problems that come from single-method, single-observer, single-theory studies. Often the purpose of triangulation in specific contexts is to obtain confirmation of findings through convergence of different perspectives. These increases credibility of research also increase the internal validity of your research. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 27  TYPES OF TRIANGULATION Denzin (1970) extended the idea of triangulation beyond its conventional association with research methods and designs. He described three forms of triangulation: Data Triangulation: Gathering data using multiple sampling methods. Researcher triangulation: which refers to the use of more than one researcher in the field to gather and interpret data. Methodological triangulation: which refers to the use of more than one method for gathering data. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 28  DATA TRIANGULATION involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study. These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a group— participants, other researchers, family, other community members, and so on. In-depth interviews could be conducted with each of these stakeholders to gain insight into their perspectives on the issue. During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 29  RESEARCHER TRIANGULATION involves using several different researchers in the analysis process. an team consisting of researchers within a field of study wherein each researcher examines the group with the same qualitative method (interview, observation, case study, or focus groups). The findings from each researcher would then be compared to develop a broader and deeper understanding of how the different investigators view the issue. If the findings from the different researchers arrive at the same conclusion, then the credibility in the findings would be heightened. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 30  Methodological Triangulation involves the use of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative methods to study the program. For example, results from surveys, focus groups, and interviews could be compared to see if similar results are being found. If the conclusions from each of the methods are the same, then credibility is established. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 31  Other Aspects of Research Design Validity – accuracy, factually sound. Reliability - consistency Trustworthiness Dependability: showing that the findings are consistent and could be repeated Confirmability: a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or interest Credibility: confidence in the 'truth' of the findings Transferability: showing that the findings have applicability in other contexts O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 32  Summary The type of approach you choose will be to a large extent determined by your research question, and your skills or ability to utilise a certain approach. For most people a mixed methods (triangulation) approach will be used So long as you make an informed choice and can justify it, it should be fine. All approaches have limitations and part of your role is to see how you can compensate for these limitations where necessary. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 33 The Beginnings of a Research THE TOPICS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 34  Sources of Topics 1. Personal experience - and a desire to investigate further 2. Curiosity- based on media reports 3. State of knowledge in the field – to determine how much people know about some communicable disease 4. Solving a problem – research can help with defining the problem. 5. Social premiums – hot topics 6. Personal values – how widespread are they. 7. Everyday life – why people behave a certain way O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 35 BROAD TOPIC NARROW TOPIC FOCUSED TOPIC RQ O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 36 Arriving at Research Questions O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 37  A Research Question Starting point for investigations in the social sciences. Directs and focuses research and LR. ✓Dependent upon quality of question set. Must be focused, narrow, clear and concise. Must be of genuine interest. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 38  Broad Topic The broadest area of your research interest. Your broad topic will help to guide your literature review. Make note of the dominant questions within the topic you are researching. E.g. Democratisation in the Caribbean O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 39  Narrowing the Topic After some research or depending on your specific interests, you can begin to narrow the topic. Consider: ✓Relevant theories/models. ✓Time period. ✓Particular events. ✓Geographical area. ✓Biographical information – gender; age; ethnicity. ✓Other aspects or fields – economic, historical, political etc. ✓Available data. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 40  Consider… “Democratisation in the Caribbean.” (Broad) “The role of NGOs in democratisation in the Anglophone Caribbean.” (Narrower) The broad topic was refined by organisational type and geographical group. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 41 Focused Topic Similar process to earlier step. You should now be familiar with the major debates. You should also have a good sense of what information and resources are available. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 42 “The role of NGOs in democratisation in the Anglophone speaking Caribbean.” “The role of indigenous NGOs in democratisation in the Anglophone Caribbean between 1999 and 2020.” (Narrower still by time period) O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 43  The Logic of Narrowing You should have logical reasons for narrowing the topic the way that you have (and these must be stated) The reasons may vary – interest; under-researched areas; available data; word limits. You should make your rationale clear – this usually is covered in the “significance of study” section of your paper. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 44  Research Question The research question should allow you to realise some of the complexity of your topic. May have a number of sub-components (specific) to your research question. This should lead to a coherent paper – do not have a series of unrelated questions and issues. You should be able to explain the rationale behind the question set. O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 45 “The role of indigenous NGOs in democratisation in the Anglophone Caribbean between 1999 and 2019.” RQ “How did indigenous NGOs use the liberal economic policies implemented between 1999 and 2009 to promote democracy the Anglophone Caribbean between 1999 and 2020?” O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 46 The research questions: General/ Main Questions: “How did indigenous NGOs use the liberal economic policies implemented between 1999 and 2009 to promote democracy the Anglophone Caribbean between 1999 and 2020?” Specific/Sub Questions: What liberal economic policies were implemented in the Anglophone Caribbean during 1999to 2019? To what extent were these policies used by indigenous NGOs promote democracy? How successful was the use of these policies? How was the use of these policies aided or hampered by local contexts? O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 47  Pay attention to and define the key concepts You need to understand the key concepts in your question. You should define these concepts in your introduction – these often are deeply contested. “How did indigenous NGOs use the liberal economic policies implemented between 1999 and 2009 to promote democracy the Anglophone Caribbean between 1999 and 2019?” O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 48  END O. Greaves - GIA 4104-2023/24 49  CONCEPTUALISATION, OPERATIONALISATION AND LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT GIA 4104 2023-24 1 Research Design and Research Questions To research a problem a i.e Youth and Political Participation the research design must be created. GIA 4104 2023-24 2  The research design must start with a research question/objective. “What is the level of political participation among young people employed in the public sector”. “To determine the level of political participation among young people employed in the public sector”. GIA 4104 2023-24 3  Research Questions and Concepts Research Questions are composed of concepts. “What is the level of political participation among young people who are employed in the public sector”. GIA 4104 2023-24 4  Concepts Concept: A label we put on a phenomenon, a matter, a “term” that enables us communicate and inherit ideas. Concepts can be concrete, abstract, tangible or intangible. – Concrete: Height, Programme of study – Abstract: Happiness, Love GIA 4104 2023-24 5  CONCEPTUALISATION CONCEPTUALISATION is the process of specifying what we mean by a concept or variable or term………a clear, verbal specification of your concept/variable/term so that others know what it is and can place borders around it. GIA 4104 2023-24 6 Why we need to Conceptualise? – We want to research abstract things i.e “intelligence”; “ability to cope with stress”; and “happiness”. – We cannot research these things until we know exactly what they are. – Our research will not make sense unless we explain exactly what we mean by “intelligence”; “ability to GIA 4104 2023-24 cope with stress”; 7 and “happiness”.  Everyday language often has vague and unspecified meanings. CONCEPTUALISATION is to specify exactly what you mean and don’t mean by the terms you use in your research. GIA 4104 2023-24 8  So, to “conceptualise” a concept/variable/term is to be clear about what you mean by it…. For example, for the concept/variable/term “political participation” you need to be clear about whether you mean (1) membership of a political organisation or (2) activism in local government activities or whatever you deem to be appropriate GIA 4104 2023-24 9  CONCEPTUALISATION, OPERATIONALISATION and MEASUREMENT GIA 4104 2023-24 10  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation If in a given study, “political participation” is conceptualized to mean: (1) membership of a political organization Then we need to decide how to operationalize the concept GIA 4104 2023-24 11  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation For the purposes of that study, “political participation” which was conceptualized ized to mean: membership of a political organization It can be operationalised in terms of ▪ duration of membership or positions held GIA 4104 2023-24 12  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation In another study, “political participation” can be conceptualised to mean: activism in local government activities and operationlised in terms of ▪ the degree of activism GIA 4104 2023-24 13  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation Similarly the concept of “Social Status” might be conceptualized and operationalized in terms of: wealth, or power. GIA 4104 2023-24 14  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation The concept “Religiosity” might be conceptualised and operationalised in terms of: belief in religious teachings, performance of religious rituals/festivals, attendance at church\mosque\temple GIA 4104 2023-24 15  The Operationalisation Process Begin with your concept/variable. Decide whether you will collect quantitative or qualitative data. Choose between experimental, survey, interview, fieldwork and content analysis to collect your data. (to be done) Decide what level of detail you need to answer your research questions. (Simple questions, in-depth questions, observations) GIA 4104 2023-24 16  Select a data recording format or locate a preexisting scale or index that measures your concept. (to be done) Check the validity of your measure. (to be done) Repeat this process for each concept you want to measure GIA 4104 2023-24 17  CONCEPTUALISATION, OPERATIONALISATION and MEASUREMENT GIA 4104 2023-24 18  Measurement If in a given study, “political participation” is conceptualized as: membership of a political organization and operationalized as: duration of membership How do we measure? duration of membership GIA 4104 2023-24 19  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation In another study, “political participation” can be conceptualised and operationalised to mean: activism in local government activities and operationalized in terms of: degree of activism How do we measure? degree of activism GIA 4104 2023-24 20  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation The concept of “Social Status” might be conceptualised and operationalised in terms of: a wealth dimension, a prestige dimension, a power dimension. How do we measure these? GIA 4104 2023-24 21  Conceptualisation and Operationalisation The concept “Religiosity” was conceptualised and operationalised in terms of: belief in religious teachings, performance of religious rituals , Attendance at temple/mosque/ church How do we measure these? GIA 4104 2023-24 22  Measurement Careful, deliberate observations of the real world for the purpose of describing objects and events in terms of the attributes composing a variable. GIA 4104 2023-24 23 Levels of Measurement Ratio Interval Ordinal Nominal GIA 4104 2023-24 24  The Level of Measurement is the Qualitative/Quantitative precision with which the values of a variable can be expressed. The Nominal level of measurement, which is qualitative, has no mathematical interpretation; The Quantitative levels of measurement — Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio—are mathematical and progressively more GIA 4104 2023-24 25 precise.  Nominal Measures The Nominal level of measurement identifies variables whose values have no mathematical interpretation; they vary in kind or quality but not in amount. In terms of the variable “Dog Breed”, you can say that the German Shepherd is not equal to the Terrier, but you cannot say that the “German Shepherd” is “more dog breedier” or “less dog breedy ” than the Terrier. GIA 4104 2023-24 26 Nominal Examples Gender Race Religious identification Architectural style GIA 4104 2023-24 27  Ordinal Measures At this level, you specify only the order of the cases, in “greater than” and “less than” distinctions. At the pet shop, for example, you might choose between a small, medium, or large breed of dog— that’s ordinal measurement. GIA 4104 2023-24 28  Ordinal examples Level of crime—high, low Income level---upper, middle, low GIA 4104 2023-24 29  Interval Measures At the interval level of measurement, numbers represent fixed measurement units but have no absolute zero point. Interval Examples IQ Age GIA 4104 2023-24 30  Ratio Measures ▪A ratio level of measurement represents fixed measuring units with an absolute zero point. ▪Zero, in this situation, means absolutely no amount of whatever the variable indicates. Ratio Examples ▪# children in the households ▪Distance travelled to work GIA 4104 2023-24 31 GIA 4104 2023-24 32  Measurement Quality: Criteria for Measurement Quality Reliability – Does it yield the same result every time? Stability over time. – If I measure you now and then in half- an-hour, do I get the same reading?. Suppose you want to measure familiarity with University regulations GIA 4104 2023-24 33  Reliability Operationalising “Familiarity with University regulations” You can ask: “Have you read the student guidelines” or “Do you know about the student guidelines” Which is the more reliable measure??? GIA 4104 2023-24 34  Ensuring Reliability Reliability suffers when respondents have to interpret. Using a fixed-response format helps – e.g. multiple choice – the researcher does not have to interpret what the respondent meant GIA 4104 2023-24 35  Validity The extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the meaning of the concept under investigation. “University Education”…should it be measured by: Number of Years @ University? or Qualifications received? GIA 4104 2023-24 36  Validity is divided into many types: – Content validity - How much a measure covers the range of meanings included in the concept i.e DEVELOPMENT – Face validity - How a measure confirms to our common agreements GIA 4104 2023-24 37  End GIA 4104 2023-24 38  SAMPLING: Techniques, CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY SAMPLING: Selecting individual observations to most efficiently yield knowledge about the population without bias GIA 4104 - 2023-24 1 GIA 4104 Lecture 6 (WEEK 7) GIA 4104 - 2023-24 2  The Context of sampling? If all members of a population were identical, the population is considered to be homogenous. That is, the characteristics of any one individual in the population would be the same as the characteristics of any other individual (little or no variation among individuals). GIA 4104 - 2023-24 3  What is sampling? When individual members of a population are different from each other, the population is considered to be heterogeneous (having significant variation among individuals). How does this change the information gathering process to understand what the population is like ? GIA 4104 - 2023-24 4  What is sampling? In order to describe a heterogeneous population, observations of multiple individuals are needed to account for all possible characteristics that may exist. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 5  Some important points about Sampling? If a sample of a population is to provide useful information about that population, then the sample must contain essentially the same variation as the population. The more heterogeneous (different) a population is… – The greater the chance is that a sample may not adequately describe a population→ we could be wrong in the inferences we make about the population. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 6  And… The sample needs to be large enough to adequately describe the population→ we need more observations to be able to make accurate inferences. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 7  Some Benefits of Sampling ❖It Saves costs: Less expensive to study the sample than the entire population. ❖It Saves time: Less time needed to study the sample than the entire population. ❖More feasible when dealing with destructible elements: For some sample elements, destroying is the way to test. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 8  Some Limitations of Sampling ❖Demands rigid controls in order to make sample results reliable. ❖Minority and smallness in number of sub- groups often render study to be suspect. ❖Sample results are good approximations at best GIA 4104 - 2023-24 9  The Language of Sampling Universe: the theoretical aggregation of all possible elements—unspecified to time and space (e.g., Past and Present UG students). Population: the theoretical aggregation of specified elements as defined for a given survey defined by time and space (e.g., all students who attended UG between 2020 and 2023). GIA 4104 - 2023-24 10  Sample Population or Target population: the aggregation of the population from which the sample is actually drawn (e.g., UG students who did GIA 1100 between 2020 and 2023). Assuming you wanted to find out something about GIA 1100. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 11 ❖Sample Frame: a specific list from which the researcher selects units to create the sample (UG Registry’s Data base of registered GIA 1100 students between 2020 and 2023 ). ❖Sample: a set of cases that is drawn from the sample frame and used to make generalizations about the population. ❖Sample element: a case or a single unit that is selected from the sample. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 12 What is Sampling? Population Sampling Process Sample What is Sampling? What you What you want to talk Population actually about observe in the data Sampling Process Sample What is Sampling? What you What you want to talk Population actually about observe in the data Sampling Process Sample Inference Using data to say something (make an inference) with confidence, about a whole (population) based on the study of a only a few (sample). What is Sampling? What you What you want to talk Population actually about observe in the data Sampling Process Sampli Sample ng Frame Inference Using data to say something (make an inference) with confidence, about a whole (population) based on the study of a only a few (sample).  Types of Sampling? There are 2 types of sampling: ❖Probability sampling ❖Non-Probability Sampling GIA 4104 - 2023-24 17  General Characteristics of Sampling Types ❖Probability Sampling - Every element in the target population has an equal probability of being chosen in the sample. - Scientific, operationally convenient and simple in theory. - Results may be generalized. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 18 General Characteristics of Sampling Types ❖Non-Probability Sampling - Every element in the target population does not have equal probability of being chosen in the sample. - Operationally convenient and simple in theory. - Results may not be generalized. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 19 Probability Sampling GIA 4104 - 2023-24 20  Probability Sampling ❖A sample must be representative of the population with respect to the variables of interest. ❖A sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected if each member of the population has an equal chance (probability) of being selected. ❖Probability samples are more accurate than non- probability samples - They remove conscious and unconscious sampling bias. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 21  Probability Sampling ❖Simple random sampling -Requires the use of a random number table. ❖Systematic sampling -Requires the sample frame only, -No random number table is necessary ❖Stratified sampling -Use of random number table may be necessary ❖Cluster sampling -Use of random number table may be GIA 4104 - 2023-24 22 necessary  Simple Random Sampling ❖Simple random sampling – randomly picking elements to include in the sample – All individuals must have an equal chance of being selected. – As sample size increases, sample becomes more and more representative of population. – Sampling is generally without replacement – A table of random numbers is required GIA 4104 - 2023-24 23  Table of Random Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 37 75 10 49 98 66 03 86 34 80 98 44 22 22 45 83 53 86 23 51 2 50 91 56 41 52 82 98 11 57 96 27 10 27 16 35 34 47 01 36 08 3 99 14 23 50 21 01 03 25 79 07 80 54 55 41 12 15 15 03 68 56 4 70 72 01 00 33 25 19 16 23 58 03 78 47 43 77 88 15 02 55 67 5 18 46 06 49 47 32 58 08 75 29 63 66 89 09 22 35 97 74 30 80 6 65 76 34 11 33 60 95 03 53 72 06 78 28 14 51 78 76 45 26 45 7 83 76 95 25 70 60 13 32 52 11 87 38 49 01 82 84 99 02 64 00 8 58 90 07 84 20 98 57 93 36 65 10 71 83 93 42 46 34 61 44 01 9 54 74 67 11 15 78 21 96 43 14 11 22 74 17 02 54 51 78 76 76 10 56 81 92 73 40 07 20 05 26 63 57 86 48 51 59 15 46 09 75 64 11 34 99 06 21 22 38 22 32 85 26 37 00 62 27 74 46 02 61 59 81 12 02 26 92 27 95 87 59 38 18 30 95 38 36 78 23 20 19 65 48 50 13 43 04 25 36 00 45 73 80 02 61 31 10 06 72 39 02 00 47 06 98 14 92 56 51 22 11 06 86 88 77 86 59 57 66 13 82 33 97 21 31 61 15 67 42 43 26 20 60 84 18 68 48 85 00 00 48 35 48 57 63 38 84 GIA 4104 - 2023-24 24  Systematic Sampling ❖Systematic Sampling – This is a technique in which an initial starting point is selected by a random process, after which every nth number on the list is selected to constitute part of the sample ❖Sampling Interval is required→ tells the researcher how to select elements from the frame (1 in ‘k’ elements is selected). GIA 4104 - 2023-24 25  Systematic Sampling ▪ Example: From a list of 1500 names, a sample of 60 is needed. A name on the list is randomly selected and then every 25th (1500/60) name thereafter. The sampling interval in this case would equal 25. ▪ For systematic sampling to work best, the list should be random in nature and not have some underlying systematic pattern GIA 4104 - 2023-24 26  Systematic Sampling ❖May be used as either probability sample or not - A probability sample if the starting point is randomly selected. - A Non-random sample if the starting point is determined by some other mechanism than chance GIA 4104 - 2023-24 27  Stratified Sampling ❖Divide the population by certain characteristics into homogeneous subgroups (strata) (e.g., PM Students, IR Students, Economics Students). ❖A simple random or a systematic sample is taken from each strata relative to the proportion of that stratum to each of the others. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 28  Stratified Sampling ❖Researchers use stratified sampling - When a group of interest is a small percentage of a population and random processes could miss the stratum by chance. - When enough is known about the population that it can be easily broken into subgroups or strata. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 29  Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling - is a type of sampling in which clusters or groups of elements are sampled at the same time. The Process: ❖Step 1- Defined population is divided into number of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subgroups or clusters: – PM Students…..IR Students GIA 4104 - 2023-24 30 ❖Step 2- Select an independent simple random sample of clusters. -- Year 1:PM Students….. Year 2: IR Students GIA 4104 - 2023-24 31  Cluster/Area Sampling One special type of cluster sampling is called area sampling, where pieces of geographical areas (i.e Region 4; Region 9; etc) are identified and villages /communities are selected randomly for sampling. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 32  Multi-Stage and Weighting ❖One-stage cluster sampling – select the clusters to be sampled and interview all members of the cluster. ❖Two-stage cluster sampling – – select the clusters to be sampled and interview random members of each cluster. ❖Weighting of clusters: sampling proportionate to cluster sizes GIA 4104 - 2023-24 33 GIA 4104 - 2023-24 34 Problems with Probability Sampling ❖Overall expensive ❖Time consuming, and the need to do call backs ❖Sample frames quickly out of date – Register of residents in a squatting area. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 35 Non-Probability Sampling GIA 4104 - 2023-24 36  Non-probability sampling Four types of non-probability sampling techniques – Very simple types, based on subjective criteria ❖Convenient sampling ❖Judgmental sampling – More systematic and formal ❖Quota sampling – Special type Snowball Sampling GIA 4104 - 2023-24 37  Convenient Sampling ❖Convenience Sampling ✓drawn at the convenience of the researcher. Common in exploratory research. Should not lead to any conclusion. ✓haphazard, accidental as it samples whoever is available. ✓no representativeness and can be very biased GIA 4104 - 2023-24 38  Judgmental Sampling Judgmental (Purpositive) Sampling ❖Use judgment and deliberate effort to pick individuals who meet a specific criteria. ❖Especially good for exploratory research. ❖Appropriate for at least 3 situations. 1. When some cases are especially informative i.e ministers, coaches etc GIA 4104 - 2023-24 39  Judgmental Sampling 2. desired population for the study is rare or very difficult to locate i.e drug dealers; prostitutes 3. case studies analysis – find important individuals and study them in depth. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 40  Quota Sampling ❖Quota sampling - quotas for certain types of people or organizations are selected as the sample – Interviewers are required to find cases with particular characteristics – E.g., certain number of taxi drivers; commuters; traffic policemen; etc. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 41  Snowball Sampling ❖Snowball sampling - Used in studies involving respondents who are rare to find. ✓an individual or group of individuals are sampled. ✓They provide other sources to be sampled. ✓Sampling snowballs into a large selection. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 42  Advantages/Disadvantages of non- probability sampling ❖Disadvantages – Unrepresentative – Interviewer bias – Timing of interviews – Statistical reliability difficult ❖Advantages – Speed, no need for call backs – Costs less – Simplicity, no need for sample frames GIA 4104 - 2023-24 43  Issues in Sample Design and Selection (1) ❖Accuracy – Samples should be representative of the target population (less accuracy is required for exploratory research than for conclusive research projects) ❖Resources – Time, money and individual or institutional capacity are very important considerations due to the limitation on them. Often, these resources must be “traded” GIA 4104 - 2023-24 44  Issues in Sample Design and Selection (2) Availability of Information – Often information on potential sample participants in the form of lists, directories etc. is unavailable (especially in developing countries) which makes some sampling techniques (e.g. systematic sampling) impossible to undertake Geographical Considerations – The number and dispersion of population elements may determine the sampling technique used (e.g. cluster sampling) GIA 4104 - 2023-24 45  Determination of Sample Size Sample size may be determined by using: – Subjective methods (less sophisticated methods) The rule of thumb approach: eg. 5% of population Conventional approach: eg. Average of sample sizes of similar other studies; Cost/Time basis approach: The number that can be studied with the available funds/time; – Statistical formulae (more sophisticated methods) Confidence interval approach. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 46  Sample size determination using statistical formulae: The confidence interval approach To determine sample sizes using statistical formulae, researchers use the confidence interval approach based on the following factors: – Desired level of data precision or accuracy; – Amount of variability in the population (homogeneity); – Level of confidence required in the estimates of population values. Availability of resources such as money, manpower and time may prompt the researcher to modify the computed sample size. GIA 4104 - 2023-24 47 END GIA 4104 - 2023-24 48