lecture_16.ppt

THE CELL CYCLE SectionA: Section A: The The Key KeyRoles Rolesof of Cell Cell Division Division...

THE CELL CYCLE SectionA: Section A: The The Key KeyRoles Rolesof of Cell Cell Division Division 1 http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/mitosis.html  Introduction The continuity of life from one cell to another is based on the reproduction of cells via cell division. This division process occurs as part of the cell cycle (the life of a cell from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two). The division of a unicellular ‫وحيد ا لخلية‬ organism (e.g. Amoeba) reproduces an entire organism, increasing the population. Cell division is also central to the development of a multicellular ‫عديد ا لخلايا‬ organism that begins as a fertilized egg or zygote.  Multicellular organisms also use cell division to repair and renew cells that die normally or by accidents (blood ( cells from bone marrow). Cell division distributes the genetic material (DNA) to two daughter cells. Division is different among cells:. - Skin cells divide frequently. - Liver cells divide when needed (damage repair). - Nerve cells and muscle cells do not divide at all.  Cell division distributes identical sets of chromosomes to daughter cells A cell’s genetic information (genome ‫ )ا لبنكا ـلﭽيني‬is packaged as DNA. In prokaryotes, the genome is often a single long DNA molecule. – In eukaryotes, the genome consists of several DNA molecules. A human cell must duplicate about 3 m of DNA and separate the two copies such that each daughter cell ends up with a complete genome. DNA molecules are packaged into chromosomes. – Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in the nucleus. – Human somatic cells (body cells) have 46 chromosomes. – Human gametes ‫( أمشاج‬sperm or eggs) have 23 chromosomes, half the number in a somatic cell ‫ا لخلية ا لجسدية‬. Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long, linear DNA molecule. 4  Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of genes (the units that specify an organism’s inherited characters ‫صفات لوراثية‬ ‫ا‬ ‫)ا ل‬. This DNA-protein complex (chromatin) is organized into a long thin fiber. After the DNA duplication, chromatin condenses to form (chromosome). Each duplicated chromosome consists of two sister chromatids which contain identical copies of the chromosome’s DNA. The narrow region where the chromosomal strands connect is the called centromere. Later, the sister chromatids are pulled apart and repackaged into two new nuclei at opposite ends of the parent cell during cell division. The process of the formation of the two daughter nuclei is called (mitosis) and is usually followed by division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis‫) ا إلنشطار ا لخلوي‬. It occurs in somatic cells ‫ا لخاليا ا لجسدية‬.  Chromatid Chromatin Protein + DNA Sister chromatid Centromere ‫صبغيات‬ ‫متماثلة‬ Homologous Chromosome Chromosome ‫ا لصبغ‬  In the gonads‫ا لمناسل‬, cells undergo a meiotic division, which yields four daughter cells, each with half the chromosomes’ number of the parent cell. – In humans, meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes from 46 to 23. Each of us inherited 23 chromosomes from each parent: one set in an egg and one set in a sperm during meiosis. gametes ‫(ا ألمشاج‬eggs or sperm) are produced only in gonads‫ا لمناسل‬ (ovaries or testes). The fertilized egg undergoes trillions of cycles of mitosis and cytokinesis to produce a fully developed multicellular human. These processes continue every day to replace dead and damaged cell. Fertilization fuses two gametes together and doubles the number of chromosomes to 46 again.  Definitions Genes: The units that specify an organism’s inherited characters. Chromatin: A DNA-protein complex which is organized into a long thin fiber Chromosome: The package that is formed from a condensed, coiled and folded chromatin. Chromatids: Two sister arms (chromatids) formed from each duplicated chromosome. They contain identical copies of the chromosome’s DNA Centromere: The narrow region at which the chromosomal strands (Chromatids) are connected together. Mitosis: Is the division process which forms two daughter nuclei Cytokinesis:‫ ا إلنشطار ا لخلوي‬Is the division stage of the cytoplasm which usually follows mitosis. Meiosis: A division process that occurs In the gonads‫ا لمناسل‬, and yields four daughter cells, each with half the chromosomes of the parent.  The Mitotic Cell Cycle (division) The mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle alternates‫ ت تبادل‬with the much longer interphase ‫ا لمرحلة ا لبينية‬. – The M phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis‫ ا إلنشطار ا لخلوي‬. – Interphase accounts for 90% of the cell cycle. During interphase the cell prepares for division by producing cytoplasmic organelles and copying its chromosomes. A. Interphase has three sub-phases: 1. The G1 phase (“first gap”): cell is carrying out its everyday activities. 2. The S phase (“synthesis”): genetic material replicates itself, which allows the cell to contain enough material for 2 cells upon division 3. The G2 phase (“second gap”): cellular organelles are produced to allow for an adequate amount for the new cell being produced. B. Division phase (M). The cell starts the division process. The resulting daughter cells may then repeat the cycle again. A. Mitosis: usually includes five sub-phases ‫رعية‬ ‫مراحلف‬:  Prophase, ‫ا لتمهيدية‬  Prometaphase, ‫ق بلا إلستوائية‬  Metaphase, ‫ا إلستوائية‬  Anaphase, ‫ا إلنفصا لية‬  Telophase. ‫ا إلنتهائية‬ By late interphase (G2), the chromosomes have been duplicated‫ ت ضاعفت‬but are loosely packed. The centrosomes have been duplicated and begin to organize microtubules into an aster (“star”). 10 1) Prophase, ‫ ا لتمهيدية‬the chromosomes are tightly coiled, with sister chromatids joined together, The nucleoli disappear. The mitotic spindle begins to form and appears to push the centrosomes away from each other towards opposite ends (poles) of the cell. 2) Prometaphase, ‫ ق ب لا إلستوائية‬the nuclear envelope fragments and microtubules from one pole attach to one of two kinetochores (special regions of the centromere) while microtubules from the other pole attach to the other kinetochore. 3) Metaphase, ‫ ا إلستوائية‬the spindle fibers push the sister chromatids until they are all arranged at the imaginary plane equidistant between the poles, defining metaphase. 11  Anaphase, ‫ ا إلنفصا لية‬the centromeres divide, result in separating the sister chromatids. Each is then pulled toward the pole to which it is attached by spindle fibers. By the end, the two poles have equivalent collections of chromosomes. Telophase, ‫ ا إلنتهائية‬the cell continues to elongate as free spindle fibers from each centrosome push off each other. 1) Two nuclei begin to form, surrounded by the fragments of the parent’s nuclear envelope. 2) Chromatin becomes less tightly coiled. 3) Cytokinesis, begins as the division of the cytoplasm occurs. 12 B. The cytokinesis: ‫ ا إلنشطار ا لخلوي‬is the division of the cytoplasm: Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) typically follows mitosis. Contraction‫ إنقباض‬of the cell pinches the cell into two new cells 15 16  Cell Cycle Interphase Division process (M) Mitosis Cytokinesis G1 S G2 Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase ‫ا لتمهيدية‬ ‫ا إلستوائية ق بلا إلستوائية‬ ‫ا إلنفصا لية‬ ‫ا إلنتهائية‬  Mitosis Summary What are type of cells that divide? They are somatic cells (body cells) How many cells are produced and are they similar? Produces 2 genetically identical cells What abbreviation and name describes the fact that they contain 2 sets of chromosomes? form diploid (2n) cell Does the division reduce the number of chromosomes or maintain the same number? Maintains the same number of chromosomes in each daughter cell How many cell divisions are there? 1 cell division How many steps are there in mitosis? 4 steps