Basic Electronics Lab Manual PDF

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Mr./Miss............................................................................................................................................................ Enrollment No................................... of.......................

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Mr./Miss............................................................................................................................................................ Enrollment No................................... of....................... Semester of Diploma in.......................................................................... of...................................................................................................... (GTU Code) has satisfactorily completed the term work in course Basic of Electronics for the academic year:............................... Term: Odd/Even prescribed in the GTU curriculum. Place:.............................. Date:............................... Signature of Course Faculty Head of the Department  Preface The primary aim of any laboratory/Practical/field work is enhancement of required skills as well as creative ability amongst students to solve real time problems by developing relevant competencies in psychomotor domain. Keeping in view, GTU has designed competency focused outcome-based curriculum -2021 (COGC-2021) for Diploma engineering programmes. In this more time is allotted to practical work than theory. It shows importance of enhancement of skills amongst students and it pays attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst Students, Instructors and Lecturers to achieve relevant outcomes by performing rather than writing practice in study type. It is essential for effective implementation of competency focused outcome- based Green curriculum-2021. Every practical has been keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop & enhance relevant industry needed competency in each and every student. These psychomotor skills are very difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board content delivery method in the classroom. Accordingly, this lab manual has been designed to focus on the industry defined relevant outcomes, rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove concept and theory. By using this lab manual, students can read procedure one day in advance to actual performance day of practical experiment which generates interest and also, they can have idea of judgement of magnitude prior to performance. This in turn enhances predetermined outcomes amongst students. Each and every Experiment /Practical in this manual begins by competency, industry relevant skills, course outcomes as well as practical outcomes which serve as a key role for doing the practical. The students will also have a clear idea of safety and necessary precautions to be taken while performing experiment. This manual also provides guidelines to lecturers to facilitate student-centered lab activities for each practical/experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that the students follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve outcomes. It also gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing Rubrics. Basic of Electronics subject gives you the core ideas about small component in electronic items and some core ideas about electronics system. This Lab manual helps you to perform practical given from curriculum of GTU. Although we try our level best to design this lab manual, but always there are chances of improvement. We welcome any suggestions for improvement.  Basic of Electronics Programme Outcomes (POs) : 1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics, science and engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the engineering problems. 2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems using codified standard methods. 3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solutions for engineering well-defined technical problems and assist with the design of systems components or processes to meet specified needs. 4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering tools and appropriate technique to conduct standard tests and measurements. 5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply appropriate technology in context of society, sustainability, environment and ethical practices. 6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a team member or a leader to manage projects and effectively communicate about well-defined engineering activities. 7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyze individual needs and engage in updating in the context of technological changes in field of engineering. Page | 3  Basic of Electronics PRACTICAL-1 AIM: Study and Identify Resistors using Colour Code A. Objective: Student would able to Identify carbon resistor value with colour code B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO6 C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency: Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. E. Practical Outcome(PRo) Write from curriculum F. Prerequisite Theory: Resistance: Resistance is the property of a material which opposes the flow of electric charges/ Page | 4  Basic of Electronics current through it. Page | 5  Basic of Electronics The unit for measuring resistance is Ohms (Ω). It is measured using the Ohmmeter. Resistor is the electronic component which is having resistance property. Resistance (R) of an object is the ration of voltage V across it to current I thought it. 𝑉 𝑅= 𝐼 Where R =Resistance V= Voltage I = Current Resistor: Resistors are components used in electrical and electronic circuits for making different voltages required for different electronic components. There are two types of resistors:- 1. Fixed resistors Figure 1.1 Symbol of Fixed Resistor Figure 1.2 Carbon Resistors Figure 1.3 Ceramic resistors Figure 1.4 Wire Wound resistors The Ohm values (resistance) of these resistors are constant and cannot be altered. The examples are carbon resistors, Ceramic resistors and Wire wound resistors. 1. Variable resistors Page | 6  Basic of Electronics Figure 1.5 Symbols of variable resistors Figure 1.6 Different types of Variable resistors These resistors, the ohm value can be varies. The examples are potentiometer, Preset, Fan regulator etc. Resistor Color Coding Resistor Color Coding uses colored bands to easily identify a resistors resistive value and its percentage tolerance There are many different types of Resistor available which can be used in both electrical and electronic circuits to control the flow of current or to produce a voltage drop in many different ways. But in order to do this the actual resistor needs to have some form of “resistive” or “resistance” value. Resistors are available in a range of different resistance values from fractions of an Ohm (Ω) to millions of Ohms. Obviously, it would be impractical to have available resistors of every possible value for example, 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω etc, because literally tens of hundreds of thousands, if not tens of millions of different resistors would need to exist to cover all the possible values. Instead, resistors are manufactured in what are called “preferred values” with their resistance value printed onto their body in colored ink. Page | 7  Basic of Electronics The Standard Resistor Color Code Chart Figure 1.7 The Standard Resistor Color Code Chart The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors. But when the resistor is small such as a 1/4 watt carbon Page | 8  Basic of Electronics or film type, these specifications must be shown in some other manner as the print would be too small to read. So to overcome this, small resistors use colored painted bands to indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These colored painted bands produce a system of identification generally known as a Resistors Color Code. An international and universally accepted resistor color code scheme was developed many years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors ohm value no matter what its size or condition. It consists of a set of individual colored rings or bands in spectral order representing each digit of the resistors value. The Resistor Color Code Table Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance Black 0 1 Brown 1 10 ± 1% Red 2 100 ± 2% Orange 3 1,000 Yellow 4 10,000 Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5% Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25% Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1% Grey 8 ± 0.05% White 9 Gold 0.1 ± 5% Silver 0.01 ± 10% None ± 20% Table 1.1 The Resistor Color Code The resistor color code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to the right, with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance. By matching the color of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart below the first digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value. Page | 9  Basic of Electronics Again, by matching the color of the second band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on. Then the resistor color code is read from left to right as illustrated below: Then we can summerise the different weighted positions of each colored band which makes up the resistors color code above in the following table: Number of 4 Colored 3 Colored Bands Bands 5 Colored Bands 6 Colored Bands Colored Bands (E6 Series) (E12 Series) (E48 Series) (E96 Series) 1st Band 1st Digit 1st Digit 1st Digit 1st Digit 2nd Band 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 3rd Band Multiplier Multiplier 3rd Digit 3rd Digit 4th Band – Tolerance Multiplier Multiplier 5th Band – – Tolerance Tolerance Temperature 6th Band – – – Coefficient Table 1.2 Color Code for various Number of bands Calculating Resistor Values The Resistor Color Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to apply it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The “left-hand” or the most significant colored band is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the color coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows: Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Color, Color x 10 color in Ohm’s (Ω) For example, a resistor has the following colored markings; Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω (Ohm). The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor. Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value and is a consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a percentage of its “nominal” or preferred value. Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision resistors with the or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive. Page | 10  Basic of Electronics Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while most of the four band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and 20%. The color code used to denote the tolerance rating of a resistor is given as: Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 % If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be at 20%. G. Observations and Calculations/Input-Output 1. Identify values of following Resistors Resistor colour code (Left to right) Value RED BROWN YELLOW SILVER BROWN ORANGE BLUE GREY YELLOW RED BLUE GREY BLUE ORANGE GOLD BROWN 2. Identify colour code of following Resistors Ohm value Value Resistor colour code (Left to right) 6.3 Ω, ± 1% 250 K Ω, ± 0.25% 920 K Ω ± 0.25% 110 Ω ± 1% H. Practical related Quiz. 1. What is the Symbol of Resistance? 2. What is the SI Unit of Resistance? Page | 11  Basic of Electronics 3. Write formula for Resistance(R) 4. What is Register? I. References / Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/q7QqtrOova8  https://youtu.be/bBX2KAHisyo  https://youtu.be/O-b_aWT-7fU 2. Web Reference (Resistor colour code calculator)  https://www.digikey.in/en/resources/conversion-calculators/conversion-calculator- resistor-color-code Page | 12  Basic of Electronics PRACTICAL-2 AIM: Study and Identify an Inductor A. Objective: Student would able to Identify various types of Inductor B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO6 C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency: Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. E. Practical Outcome(PRo) Write from curriculum F. Prerequisite Theory: Inductor: An Inductor is a passive electrical component consisting of a coil of wire which is designed to take advantage of the relationship between magnetism and electricity as a result of an electric current passing through the coil Page | 13  Basic of Electronics An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of inductance, which is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current. Inductance is a result of the induced magnetic field on the coil. It is also determined by several factors such as;  The shape of the coil.  The number of turns and layers of the wire.  The space that is given between the turns.  Permeability of the core material.  The size of the core. The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and when we measure magnetic circuits it is equivalent to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L. 𝑁Φ 𝐿= H 𝐼 L is in henries N is the number of turns in coil Φ Is magnetic flux I is current in Amperes 𝑑𝑖 The e.m.f induced in the coil denoted by 𝑒 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 is the rate of change in current with respected to time. 𝑑𝑡 The energy stored in inductor is 𝑊 = 1 𝐿𝐼2 joule 2 Meanwhile, an inductor is totally different from a capacitor. In the case of a capacitor, it stores energy as electrical energy but as mentioned above, inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. One key feature of the inductor is that it also changes its polarity while discharging. In this way polarity during discharging can be made opposite to the polarity during charging. The polarity of the induced voltage is well explained by Lenz law. Symbols for an inductor are given below: Figure 2.1 Symbol of Inductor Construction of an Inductor If we look at the construction of an inductor it usually consists of a coil of conducting material (widely used ones include insulated copper wire) that is wrapped around a core that is made up of plastic material or ferromagnetic material. One advantage of using a ferromagnetic core is that it has high permeability which helps in increasing the magnetic field and at the same time confining it closely to the inductor. Ultimately this results in higher inductance. Page | 14  Basic of Electronics On the other hand, inductors with low frequency are usually constructed like transformers. They have cores made up of electrical steel that is laminated to help prevent eddy currents. ‘Soft’ ferrites are also widely used for cores above audio frequencies. Inductors do come in many shapes and types. In some inductors, you will find an adjustable core that allows changing the inductance. Inductors that are used in blocking very high frequencies are mostly made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire. Planar inductors are made using a planar core while small value inductors are built on integrated circuits using the processes of making interconnects. Typically, an aluminium interconnect is used and fixed in a spiral coil pattern. However, small dimensions have some limitations. They restrict the inductance. There are also shielded inductors which are commonly used in power regulation systems, lighting, and other systems requiring low-noise operating conditions. These inductors are often partially or fully shielded. Figure 2.2 Inductor working circuit Different Types of Inductors Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as follows: 1. Iron Core Inductor 2. Air Core Inductor 3. Iron Powder Inductor 4. Ferrite Core Inductor which is divided into,  Soft Ferrite  Hard Ferrite Page | 15  Basic of Electronics Figure 2.3 Different types of Inductor Iron Core Inductor As the name suggests the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors are low space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they are limited in high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment. Air Core Inductor These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is no core, it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is more for this type when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-Quality factor. Usually, ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors. Iron Powder Inductor In this type of inductor, the core is Iron Oxide. They are formed by very fine and insulating particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the air gap. The permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less. They are usually below 100. They are mainly used in switching power supplies. Ferrite Core Inductor In this type of Inductor, ferrite materials are used as core. The general composition of ferrites is XFe2O4. Where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified into two types. Soft ferrites and hard ferrites.  Soft Ferrite: Materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity without any external energy.  Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets. That is their polarity will not change even when the magnetic field is removed. Page | 16  Basic of Electronics Functions of an Inductor Inductors can be used for two primary functions. 1. To control signals. 2. To store energy. Controlling Signals Coils in an inductor can be used to store energy. The function of the inductor depends upon the frequency of the current passing through it. That is for higher frequency signals will be passed less easily and vice versa. This function tells that it blocks AC Current and passes DC Current. Hence, it can be used to block AC signals. Inductors can be used along with capacitors to form LC filters. Storing Energy Inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. Coils can store electrical energy in a form of magnetic energy using the property that an electric current flowing through a coil produces a magnetic field, which in turn produces an electric current. In other words, coils offer a means of storing energy on the basis of inductivity G. Conclusion H. Practical related Quiz. 1. List different types of Inductors. 2. Write SI unit of Inductance. Page | 17  Basic of Electronics 3. List function of Inductor. I. References / Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/d73e3QiMdSU  https://youtu.be/ukBFPrXiKWA 2. Web Reference  https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/07/types-of-inductors.html Page | 18  Basic of Electronics PRACTICAL-3 AIM: Study and Identify Capacitors A. Objective: Student would able to Identify various types of Capacitors B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO6 C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency: Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. E. Practical Outcome(PRo) Write from curriculum F. Prerequisite Theory: Capacitor The capacitor is a device in which electrical energy can be stored. It is an arrangement of two-conductor generally carrying charges of equal magnitudes and opposite sign and separated by an insulating medium. The non-conductive region can either be an electric insulator or vacuum such as glass, paper, air or semi-conductor called as a dielectric. Page | 19  Basic of Electronics Capacitor vary in shape and size, they have many important applications in electronics. Symbols of capacitors are as bellow. Figure 3.1 Symbol of Capacitors Figure 3.2 Images of different capacitors Capacitance: The capacitance of a capacitor tells you how much charge it can store, more capacitance means more capacity to store charge. Symbol of capacitance is C and Unit of capacitance is farad and it is denoted by F. 𝑄 𝐶= 𝑉 When a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across the capacitor and 1 coulomb of charge is stored in it, the capacitance is called 1 farad. The energy stored in capacitor is given by 𝑊 = 1 𝐶𝑉2 Joule 2 How Capacitor is made: A capacitor is made by when insulating material is placed between two conducting plates. Page | 20  Basic of Electronics Figure 3.3 Capacitor Application of Capacitor  Storing electric potential energy such as batteries.  Filtering out unwanted frequency signals  Delaying voltage changes when coupled with resistors.  Used as a sensing device.  Used in the audio system of the vehicle.  Used to separate AC and DC. G. Conclusion H. Practical related Quiz. 1. What is capacitors? 2 List different types of capacitors. Page | 21  Basic of Electronics 3. Write SI unit of Capacitance. 4. List applications of capacitor. 5. Write SI unit of Capacitance. I. References / Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/2dJC4qAcNkE  https://youtu.be/HcfA-G-dvvc 2. Web Reference  https://studyelectrical.com/2016/12/different-types-classification-of- capacitors.html Page | 22  Basic of Electronics PRACTICAL-4 AIM: Study V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode. A. Objective: Student would able to identify PN junction characteristics by creating VI graph. B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO6 C. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. D. Practical Outcome(Pro) Write from curriculum E. Prerequisite Theory: Structure of P-N junction diode The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode. Figure 4.1 Structure of PN Junction Figure 4.2 Symbol of PN Junction diode Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches Page | 23  Basic of Electronics sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode. Figure 4.3 PN Junction in forward biased Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode breaks down. Figure 4.4 PN Junction in Reverse biased The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage. Page | 24  Basic of Electronics Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage. Figure 4.5 VI Characteristics of PN Junction In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow. F. Procedure to be followed Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical OR Open via this link http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp5/index.html FORWARD BIASED: 1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V. 2. Select the diode. 3. Set the resistor. Page | 25  Basic of Electronics 4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor. 5. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to the N side(cathode) of the diode. 6. Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for particular DC voltage. 7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading. 8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change. 9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI 10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage. Figure 4.6 Forward Biased implemented in Virtual Lab REVERSE BIASED: 1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V. 2. Select the diode. 3. Set the resistor. 4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor. 5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. 6. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage. 7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading. 8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change. Page | 26  Basic of Electronics Figure 4.7 Reverse Biased implemented in Virtual Lab G. Observations and Calculations/Input-Output (CE & IT software subjects): FORWARD BIAS: Sr.No. Forward Forward Voltage Current Vf (volts) If (mA) Table 4.1 Forward voltage and forward Current REVERSE BIAS: Sr.No. Reverse Reverse Voltage Current Vr(volts) Ir (μA) Table 4.2 Reverse Voltage and Reverse Current Page | 27  Basic of Electronics H. Conclusion I. References / Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/lvVCMz0GQa8?list=PLD85An3RPybzURp7v0qoKGB53QVHmUTsQ  https://youtu.be/XyLa3qZ1mrg?list=PLD85An3RPybzURp7v0qoKGB53QVHmUTsQ 2. Web Reference  https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction/ J. Graph  Draw graph of Voltage vs Current as per value from observation table of forward biased and reverse biased. Page | 28 Basic of Electronics Page | 29  Basic Electronics (4321601) PRACTICAL-6 AIM: Build and Test working of Half wave Rectifier and Full wave Rectifier. A. Objective: Student should able to identify working of Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO6 C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency: Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. E. Practical Outcome(PRo) Write from curriculum F. Prerequisite Theory: THEORY: A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier.  Basic Electronics (4321601) 1) Half Wave Rectifier On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and on the negative cycle the diode is reverse biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC source into a pulsating DC source. In summary we have ‘rectified’ the AC signal. The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier.The half-wave rectifier is a circuit that allows only part of an input signal to pass. The circuit is simply the combination of a single diode in series with a resistor, where the resistor is acting as a load. Figure 100.1 Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier Half Wave Rectifier Circuit Figure 10.2 Circiut of Half Wave Rectifier 2) Full Wave Rectifier A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half the cycle in  Basic Electronics (4321601) the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave rectifier example and deduce the circuit. Figure 10.3 Diagram of Full Wave Rectifier If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees Figure 10.4 Diagram of Full Wave Rectifier with phase 1800  Basic Electronics (4321601) Now if we add these two circuits, we would get Figure 10.5 adding two circuit Full Wave Rectifier Circuit Figure 10.6 Circuit of Full wave Rectifier G. Procedure to be followed: 1) Half Wave Rectifier Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical OR Open via this link: http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp6/halfwaverectifier_ver2.html  Basic Electronics (4321601) 1. Set the resistor RL 2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment. 3. Double click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform 4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output. 5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers. 6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform. 7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified waveform. Figure 10.7 Screenshot of implementation of Half wave Rectifier in VLab 1) Full Wave Rectifier Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical OR Open via this link: http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp6/halfwaverectifier_ver2.html 1. Set the resistor RL 2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment. 3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform 4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output. 5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.  Basic Electronics (4321601) 6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform. 7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified waveform. Figure 10.8 Screenshot of implementation of Full wave Rectifier in VLab H. Conclusion I. Practical related Quiz. 1. Draw circuit diagram of Half wave rectifier?  Basic Electronics (4321601) 2. Draw circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier? J. References / Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/yaUMBKjkOjg  https://youtu.be/joDlqsknn-w  https://youtu.be/77EvCyD3C34?list=RDCMUCZOe4q1noVw3Jp-tDejdKfg 2. Web Reference  http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp6/index.html  http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp7/index.html K. Graph  Draw following Signal on the graph 1. Input A.C. Signal 2. Output of Half wave rectifier(D.C signal) 3. Output of Full wave rectifier(D.C signal) Basic Electronics (4321601)  Basic Electronics (4321601) PRACTICAL-7 AIM: Build and Test working of Bridge Rectifier A. Objective: Student should able to test working of bridge rectifier B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO6 C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency: Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. E. Practical Outcome(PRo) Write from curriculum F. Prerequisite Theory: Bridge Rectifier Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce the desired output but does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its  Basic Electronics (4321601) size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below. Figure 11.1 Circuit of Bridge Rectifier Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased (ideally they can be replaced with open circuits) and the current flows through the load as shown below. Figure 111.2 Bridge Rectifier- Positive Half Cycle  Basic Electronics (4321601) For Positive Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Forward Biased and D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased. Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before. Figure 11.3 Bridge Rectifier- Negative Half Cycle Figure 11.4 Diagram of Bridge Rectifier  Basic Electronics (4321601) G. Procedure to be followed: Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical OR Open via this link: http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp7/fullwaverectifier_ver2.html 1. Set the resistor RLRL. 2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment. 3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform 4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output. 5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers. 6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform. 7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified waveform. 8. Calculate the Ripple Factor. Theoretical Ripple Factor=0.483. Input signal Figure 11.5 Input signal in VLab  Basic Electronics (4321601) Output Signal Figure 11.6 Output Signal in VLab H. Conclusion I. Practical related Quiz. 1. Draw circuit diagram of Bridge rectifier  Basic Electronics (4321601) J. References/ Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/JG3asbRqHDs  https://youtu.be/EkHch86UXpY 2. Web Reference  http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp7/index.html K. Graph( Not Applicable for CE & IT subjects)  Draw following graph in single graph. 1. Input A.C Signal 2. Output D.C Signal Basic Electronics (4321601)  Basic Electronics (4321601) PRACTICAL-8 AIM: Measurement of various electrical quantities in a circuit using Digital Multimeter. A. Objective: Student would able to Measure amplitude,wavelength (λ), frequency (f) and time Duration (T) B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)  PO1  PO2  PO4  PO6  PO7 C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency: Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos) Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come. E. Practical Outcome(PRo) Write from curriculum F. Prerequisite Theory:  What is a multimeter?  Basic of Electronics A multimeter is a handy tool that you use to measure electricity, just like you would use a ruler to measure distance, a stopwatch to measure time, or a scale to measure weight. The neat thing about a multimeter is that unlike a ruler, watch, or scale, it can measure different things — kind of like a multi-tool. Most multimeters have a knob on the front that lets you select what you want to measure. Below is a picture of a typical multimeter. There are many different multimeter models. Basic two type multimeter: Analog and Digital.  What can multimeters measure? Almost all multimeters can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Some multimeters have a continuity check, resulting in a loud beep if two things are electrically connected. This is helpful if, for instance, you are building a circuit and connecting wires or soldering; the beep indicates everything is connected and nothing has come loose. You can also use it to make sure two things are not connected, to help prevent short circuits. Some multimeters also have a diode check function. A diode is like a one-way valve that only lets electricity flow in one direction. The exact function of the diode check can vary from multimeter to multimeter. If you're working with a diode and can't tell which way it goes in the circuit, or if you're not sure the diode is working properly, the check feature can be quite handy. If your multimeter has a diode check function, read the manual to find out exactly how it works. Advanced multimeters might have other functions, such as the ability to measure and identify other electrical components, like transistors or capacitor. Since not all multimeters have these features, we will not cover them in this tutorial. You can read your multimeter’s manual if you need to use these features. What are voltage, current, and resistance? Remember that voltage, current, and resistance are measurable quantities that are each measured in a unit that has a symbol, just like distance is a quantity that can be measured in meters, and the symbol for meters is m.  Voltage is how hard electricity is being "pushed" through a circuit. A higher voltage means the electricity is being pushed harder. Voltage is measured in volts. The symbol for volts is V.  Current is how much electricity is flowing through the circuit. A higher current means more electricity is flowing. Current is measured in amperes. The symbol for amperes is A.  Resistance is how difficult it is for electricity to flow through something. A higher resistance means it is more difficult for electricity to flow. Resistance is measured in ohms. The symbol for ohms is Ω (the capital Greek letter omega).  Basic of Electronics Digital multimeter Figure 8.1 Digital multimeter A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries. Analog multimeter Figure 8.2 Analog multimeter  Basic Electronics (4321601) Analog multimeter was first of its type, but due to latest technological development after development of digital multimeters, nowadays it is of less use. However, despite such advancements, it is still essential, and we can’t neglect it. An analog multimeter is a PMMC meter. It works based on the d’Arsonval galvanometer principle. It consists a needle to indicate the measured value on the scale. A coil moves in a magnetic field when current passes through it. The indicating needle is fastened to the coil. During the flow of current through the coil, a deflecting torque gets produced due to which the coil rotates at some angle, and the pointer moves over a graduated scale. A pair of hairsprings is attached to the moving spindle to provide the controlling torque. In a multimeter, the galvanometer is a left- zero-type instrument, i.e. needle rests to the extreme left of the scale from where the scale begins with zero. Advantages of Analog Multimeter  A sudden change in signal can detect by analog multimeter more swiftly than a digital multimeter.  All measurements are possible by using one meter only.  Increase or decrease in signal levels can be observed. Disadvantage of Analog Multimeter  Analog meters are bulky in size.  They are bulky and costly.  The pointer movement is slow, can’t be used to measure voltages with frequencies higher than 50 HZ.   Inaccurate due to the effect of earth magnetic field.  They are vulnerable to shock and vibration. Figure 8.3 Series and Parallel Circuit  Basic Electronics (4321601) G. Procedure to be followed:  Open Electronic Workbench  Take one DC power source, ground, multimeter and resistor  Connect component as per given circuit.  To measure voltage across resistor, connect multimeter in parallel to resistor.  Switch on simulation.  Double click on multimeter to open its display for observation. Figure 8.4 Voltage Measurement using multimeter  Now to measure current flowing in the circuit, connect multimeter in series to resistor.  Switch on simulation.  Double click on multimeter to open its display for observation. Figure 8.5 Current Measurement using multimeter  Basic Electronics (4321601) H. Observations and Calculations NOTE : Take R = 2 Ω Sr. Battery Voltage Voltage across Current though No. Vin Register VR Register IR 1 5V 2 10 V 3 15 V 4 20 V 5 25 V I. Conclusion J. Practical related Quiz. 1. What are the types of Mulimeter? K. References / Suggestions 1. YouTube Video Link  https://youtu.be/-YW7FDO6lFI  https://youtu.be/Mzyw2sotpMU  Basic Electronics (4321601)  https://youtu.be/mT1W3C0ADv4 2. Web Reference  https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/measuring-resistance-voltage-current-digital- multimeter  https://dengarden.com/home-improvement/Using-a-Multimeter                            Basic Electronics (4321601) Date: Experiment – 9 AIM: To study and perform Zener diode as voltage regulator. APPARATUS: Zener diode as voltage regulator kit, connecting wires, Digital multimeter. THEORY: Zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. It permits current to flow in the forwarddirection as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics areotherwise very similar to common diodes. The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of variations in the applied input voltage andvariations in the load current. The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at VIN (min) and the load current is at IL(max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least Iz(min). Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts theexcess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the load. CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS: Fig:9.1 zener diode as voltage regulator PROCEDURE: 1. Wire up the circuit shown in figure 9.1 2. Record the voltage across the Zener diode (V) and current (I) through it as a  Basic Electronics (4321601) functionof input voltage. Find Zener Voltage  Basic Electronics (4321601) 3. Keep the load resistance RL constant. Vary the input voltage in short steps and recordthe voltage across the Zener diode and current flowing through the RL. 4. Repeat the above step for various Vin values. OBSERVATION TABLE: Sr. No. Supply Voltage Curren VoltageVs AcrossZener t (volt) Diode Vz throug (volt) hRL I (mA) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 CONCLUSION: References Book: 1. Robert Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky- Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio  Basic Electronics (4321601) Video Lecture: 1. NPTEL Note of Zener Diode and Applications  Basic Electronics (4321601) NOTES Basic Electronics (4321601)