Animal Welfare Assessment PDF

ANIMAL WELFARE ASSESSMENT ▪ The moral and ethical duty of all persons involved in the farm animal industry: to ensure the fulfillment of the requirements the five freedoms during animals life and an human death at the time of their slaughter.  ANIMAL WELFARE ASSESSMENT Identifica...

ANIMAL WELFARE ASSESSMENT ▪ The moral and ethical duty of all persons involved in the farm animal industry: to ensure the fulfillment of the requirements the five freedoms during animals life and an human death at the time of their slaughter.  ANIMAL WELFARE ASSESSMENT Identification of risks and problems Early intervention to eliminate them Increasing the degree of animal welfare  Animal Welfare Indicators REQUIREMENTS for welfare indicators ✔To rely on scientific knowledge and to be able to show changes over time; ✔To be measurable on commercial farms in real and feasible conditions; ✔To be relevant to support certain decisions - provide the farmer with information about potential welfare issues and their causes.  Indirect Direct Indicators indicators – indicators - of animal related to related to the welfare resources animal ▪ RESOURCES = all elements of the living environment - available ▪ the recording of indicators implies ▪ to measure these elements ▪ or to determine their presence (or absence). ADVANTAGES ❑ RECORDING → easy, fast, repeatable, accurate, suitable for field application ❑ RESULTS → quantitative or can be quantified and can be easily processed later ❑ INDIRECT INDICATORS ❑ Housing (animal environment) ❑ Farm management  type and the floor type type of housing location of the waterers system bedding the elements the space allocated of the shelters systems and equipment for for an animal watering, feeding, waste disposal quality and quantity HOUSING of water and feed microclimate isolators for sick maternity illumination animals restraining Ventilation outside access, the systems for paddocks animals  environmental sanitation identification of animals animals grouping Farm management disease management and disease alarm systems, fire prevention actions protection  Disadvantages ensuring good farm management + resources does not always lead to a high level of welfare. ⚫Example: An animal may not use environmental resources and its welfare, may be less than what should be based on the availability of resources. ⚫the animal has good quality food (including water) in sufficient quantity, but its physical condition is still bad due to dental problems. ⚫the resource (food and water) can not be used optimally - it has no real value for the welfare of the animal.  EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS FOR ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS Illumination is done ◦ by natural light (sun) ◦ by artificial light ◦ often combined (mixed lighting)  Natural illumination ▪ Natural illumination is achieved by the light rays that enter the shelter through the transparent surfaces (windows, shed) specially built for this purpose. ▪ Natural light is a free source and, above all, more physiological for animals. ▪ In a shelter, the natural illumination differs from that of the outside by the duration, the intensity and the proportion of the component rays. ▪ The duration of natural illumination is given by the daylight length, which vary according to the season. ▪ The wide variation in daylight length is not respecting the need of animals for light, it is a limitative factor for the usage of natural illumination, especially in certain animal species, where is possible not to use natural light at all. ▪ In Romania, the average annual duration is 12.2 hours / day, with a minimum in December (8.8 hours) and a maximum in June (15.6 hours). ▪ The intensity of natural lighting depends on the intensity of lighting in the exterior and the possibility of light entrance inside the buildings. ▪ In the exterior environment the light intensity is between 0.2 lux during full moon and 100.000 lux at noon, under the shinny sun. ▪ The nebulosity, mist or dust in the atmosphere influences light intensity, leading to direct or diffuse radiation, the last one count in natural lighting of animal houses. ▪ Several factors on the earth’s surface can absorb or reflect the radiations, determining the albedo (the reflectivity of a surface) and lighting of the environment. ▪ For outdoor shelter design, areas with high albedo (fresh snow, concrete sidewalks) are preferred, resulting in more intense diffuse lighting compared to non - vegetated soil. ▪ The natural or artificial obstacles around animal houses reduce the light flow towards the buildings; ▪ it is therefore necessary to ensure a free zone with a width at least 2 times greater than the height of the obstacles ▪ The dimension and location of the transparent surfaces represents the essential factor on which depends the intensity of natural illumination. ▪ The intensity of lighting increases parallel with the amount of the transparent surfaces (windows). ▪ The necessity for good natural lighting impose as large transparent surfaces as it is possible but, in the same time, these have highest thermal transmission coefficients among all closing elements and lead to great heat losses during the winter. ▪ For thermal insulation reasons and in order to ensure the needed illumination level for the housed animals, in the design phase illumination indicators are used: ▪ The coefficient of natural illumination (C.N.I.), represent the percentage ratio between the illumination of an area inside of the barn and the illumination of a horizontal surface in the outside. ▪ The etalon for outside illumination is considered to be 5 000 lux in a cloudy day in winter. ▪ The recommended value of CNI in animal houses is of 1-2% of the outside lighting level, corresponding to 50 - 100 lux. ▪ The illumination index (I), represents the ratio between the transparent surfaces (windows) and the flooring (physical) surface of a barn. It is expressed as a fraction. The value of the illumination index is regulated for animal species and categories. The effective illumination of a barn depends on several factors : ◦ the orientation of the shelters ◦ the height of the parapet ◦ the size and shape of the windows ◦ the quality of the windows ◦ the color of the interior surfaces ◦ the inside delimitations -how the interior is divided  ▪ The orientation of the building with respect to the cardinal points, allows the improvement of inside lighting intensity. ▪ The barns with windows in both longitudinal walls should be placed on the N- S direction. ▪ This way the daylight duration is prolonged and the intensity is higher, without exceeding illumination levels in the noon. ▪ The one-side-open barns or those with windows in only one longitudinal wall should be placed with this side to S. ▪ In order to avoid high heat losses under the cold winds’ action in winter, deviations of 25-450 from these directions are admitted. ▪ The height of the windows’ parapet should be as high as possible (1.80 – 2.00 m), for a better illumination of the barns’ center. ▪ It is recommended that the upper part of the windows does not exceed the level of the strain. ▪ the surface of the windows is reduced by shading ▪ The size and shape of the windows also have a significant influence on the level of illumination. ▪ Large windows provide more intense, but uneven lighting, due to reduced illumination index. For this reason, it is better to have small windows, but in larger numbers. ▪ The horizontal rectangular shape of the windows is the most widespread. ▪ The quality of the glass is of great importance to ensure the luminous intensity. ▪ The usual thickness of the glass (1.6 to 2.5 mm) absorbs about 10% of the light radiation. ▪ The dirt retains up to 15 to 30% of radiation while, depending on its thickness, the ice holds up to 85-90% of the light. ▪ Windows allow the passage of infrared radiations but retain the UV rays bellow 320 nm. ▪ The use of fiberglass panels or other unbreakable glass material instead of windows, determines a greater absorption of light radiation. ▪ The color of the interior surfaces ▪ Once inside the shelter, the light radiation is subjected to the process of absorption, reflection and diffusion. ▪ white reflects 89 to 95% of the radiation ▪ gray and yellow colors around 40% ▪ brown about 16% ▪ black only 1.6% ▪ For better illumination, walls and other surfaces of the shelter should be painted in white. ▪ The inside delimitations (partition walls) will be reduced to minimum and the necessary delimitations will be made of spaced elements, to allow the passage of light. ▪ At shelters with large widths over 18 m or combined, for efficient lighting of central areas, windows are also located at the ridge between the roof frames shifted vertically (shed) or at the level of the frames (zenith illuminators) ▪ These installations are used also for ventilation; the windows in the shed must be mobile. ▪ The uniformity of natural lighting is necessary for all of the animals to have equal amount of light stimulus. ▪ Uniformity is obtained by the repartition of transparent units in the walls and roofs and it is as better as the opaque interval between the windows is smaller. Artificial illumination ▪ Artificial lighting is considered to fulfill two roles ▪ First, it provides a low level of general lighting (maximum 20 lux) so that animals can move with confidence inside the shelter, without the risk of accidents; ▪ Second, it can ensure a higher intensity (300 lux) which facilitates the inspection of animals and movement of equipment.  Artificial illumination ▪ Artificial illumination increases the duration of light in the day and, combined with the natural illumination of the interior of the shelter, has beneficial effects on the animals. ▪ Even if the benefic effects of prolonged lighting programs are proven, the animals need also time to rest, in darkness. ▪ The lighting period - natural and/or artificial - should, as far as possible, respect the natural cycle of daylight. ▪ The supplementary illumination program should take into account the period of the day when the employee access is needed to the animals; in other periods of the day the electric power should be saved. ▪ For the intensive breeding of poultry and rabbits , artificial illumination has become a technological factor capable of directing their growth, development and production by the duration and intensity of lighting in accordance with the physiological necessities of animals. ▪ These objectives can be achieved only through the removal of natural lighting, in buildings without windows, provided exclusively with artificial lighting - “blind” barns. ▪ Artificial light is a primary source of light like the sun. ▪ The monochromatic rays that make up the light spectrum are emitted by electrically heated metals, so-called lamps. ▪ Lighting lamps are classified into three categories: ▪ incandescent lamps (halogen and / or quartz) ▪ fluorescent lamps (tubular and compact) ▪ high intensity discharge lamps (metal halogen lamps, mercury and sodium) ▪ Each type of lamp has specific properties, efficiency, longevity and maintenance, as well as variable purchase and usage cost. All of these factors must be taken into consideration when choosing lighting. ▪ Although it is still often used in farm buildings, incandescent lighting is the least efficient. ▪ The efficiency of the vast majority of used lamps increases with increasing power. ▪ Fluorescent lamps, metal halogen lamps and sodium lamps are the most effective. ▪ Traditional fluorescents lamps are 3 times more efficient than incandescent lamps. ▪ High-pressure sodium lamps have the highest efficiency and durability of all lamp types. ▪ However, given that the light produced is yellow and the brightness generated is poor, we do not recommend them for installation in dairy barns and milking parlors. ▪ The sodium lamp will be used outdoors and in large stall barns  color lamp type CRI rendering ▪ Color rendering index (CRI) - is a quantitative measure of the ability of a light source to reveal the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison with an ideal or natural light source. ▪ gives the ability of a light to reproduce the exact color of objects. ▪ To ensure good lighting in the tie barns, the CRI should be greater than 80. ▪ The power of an artificial illumination installation is estimated according to the electricity consumed by the lamps, expressed in w/m2 area of the shelter. ▪ The fluorescent illumination installation will provide the same intensity of light but the consumption in electric energy will be only of 1/3 of those of the incandescent lighting installations. ▪ The intensity of artificial illumination is regulated on animal species and categories in w/m2 for incandescent bulbs, which are more used. ▪ For the fluorescent illumination the hygienic norm is only 1/3 of the value for the incandescent light bulbs. ▪ The uniformity of the artificial lighting is obtained by the mode of placement of the light sources. ▪ In the shelters, the recommendations concern the use of several lamps at lower powers, in order to increase the number of lamps in the shelter and thus to avoid areas intensely lit by more powerful lamps. ▪ The duration of the artificial lighting is fixed by the breeder. ▪ The practice of artificial lighting in windowless shelters, using the intensities and durations appropriate to the livestock housed there, is included in programs carried out by automatically controlled lighting installations.  ▪ As the intensity and uniformity of natural and artificial lighting are influenced by many factors, for an objective assessment of efficient lighting, it is better to measure in Lux with the help of 'a luxmeter. Natural illumination (I) Artificial illumination Intensity of illumination (lux) Animal house destination (w/m2) Dairy cows 1/20 2.5 50-60 Cow maternity 1/20 4.5 50-60 Calves - - 40 Breeding youngsters 1/16 3.5 60-70 Fattening adult cattle 1/25 2.5 50-60 Mares with foals, stallions (in boxes) 1/18 3.5 - Draft horses 1/25 2.0 - Pregnant sows and boars 1/18-1/20 3.5 40-60 Sow maternity 1/18 5.0 40-60 Breeding youngsters 1/18 5.0 40-60 Fattening pigs 1/25 2.0 40 Ewes housing (parturition pens) 1/20 1.2 20 Intensive rabbit breeding: - breeding: - 8 hours/day until freshening time - 1.0 30-40 - 16 hours/day, pregnant animals and offspring - 3.0 30-40 - offspring: 3-5 hours/day - 1.0-1.5 0,5-1 Intensive poultry breeding: Laying hens on bedding or in batteries 1/18-1/20 3.5 20 Reproduction offspring - 3.0 – 3.5 60 - 10 Meat chicken (on age groups) - 2.5-1.0 20-10 Semi-intensive breeding: Ducks and geese 1/14 1.2-2.0 2 Control night-time illumination - 0.5 - ▪ In Romania, but also in other countries, in broiler flocks, artificial lighting of green and blue color is used. ▪ Studies have shown that this illumination system has several advantages, namely: promotes the conversion of the meat supply; increase the uniformity of populations; reduces stress, reduced electricity consumption, reduction of mortality. ▪ Green light is recommended in the start-up phase (1 to 14 days), because it promotes the consumption of food and water, then a combination of green and blue light (15 to 18 days) and after 18 days until the end of the productive cycle, the blue light that has a soothing effect on chickens.  The sheep ▪ Sheep are seasonal and photoperiod sensitive animals. ▪ Sheep should be provided with an appropriate period of artificial light rest (eg, 6 hours), but should not be kept in permanent darkness. ▪ Light is also needed to facilitate the proper work of livestock keepers so that sheep kept indoors can be inspected at any time and handled as needed during emergencies, daily routine care. ▪ During the hours of the day, the level of indoor lighting, whether natural or artificial, must be such that the livestock workers can clearly see all the housed sheep. ▪ Proper lighting for handling areas is also important for the well-being of sheep. Sheep prefer to go from dark to light areas. Shadows can scare the sheep and make moving them more difficult. ▪ Outdoor lighting in the facilities can reduce predator problems, but avoid influencing the diurnal cycle of sheep. RECOMMENDED PRACTICES provide six hours of darkness per 24-hour period for confined sheep. EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS FOR VENTLATION ▪ To ensure the amount of fresh air required, (the necessary ventilation), one must know: ▪ the ventilation volume ▪ the cubic capacity of the shelter ▪ the exchange coefficient The ventilation volume ▪ the volume of atmospheric air that must enter all times in the shelters ▪ expressed in m3air/h/ animal m3 air/h/kg body weight  The cubic capacity of the shelter ▪ is regulated in such a way as to allow animals to heat up the air during the cold seasons, and to allow foul air to be easily exchanged with fresh air. ▪ the result of contradictory requirements ▪ hygienic requirements - large volumes / animal head ▪ economic requirements - small volumes of the shelter ▪ Reconciliation of these requirements - there are standards for the volume of shelters The exchange coefficient (the ventilation coefficient, the number of exchanges/hour) ▪ indicates how often air within the shelter must be exchanged for fresh air in an hour. ▪ This is calculated by dividing the calculated ventilation volume to the cubic capacity of the shelter. ▪ There is a minimum exchange coefficient for a fix cubic capacity of the shelter for the cold season, and a maximum for the warm season. EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS FOR VENTLATION Natural ventilation ▪ The necessary air volumes, determined according to the number of animals in a shelter, calculated in winter according to the humidity and in summer according to the level of heat released by the animals, must be ensured permanently via the continuous exchange of air between the shelter and the outside environment. ▪ Depending on the mechanisms that determine this exchange, ventilation can be classified as natural or mechanical.  Volume m³/h / head The category of animals and species WINTER SUMMER Adult cows in closed shelters 42 125 Young cattle in closed shelters 25 100 Calves up to 4 months in heated shelters 20 80 Boars and sows 70-85 150 Sows with piglets 100-150 200 Piglets 10-20 50 Pigs for fattening 30 to 60 kg 15 65 Pigs for fattening of more than 60 kg 45 120 Poultry (1 kg of weight alive) 1 5 Volume to ventilate by species and category of animals  Natural ventilation ▪ is based on the temperature difference between the outdoor environment and the habitat.  Natural ventilation ▪ The driving force is the animals themselves, which, by the heat released, warm the air of the shelter. ▪ Hot air, with a lower density, rises in the upper part of the shelter, while cold atmospheric air, at a higher density, goes down to the lower part of the shelter. Natural ventilation ▪ When this difference is zero (tint - text = 0), the exchange of air may no longer take place, but the cancellation of the exchange itself causes an increase in the tint , which creates the necessary difference. ▪ In practice, effective air exchange occurs when there is a difference of 10 C0 or more, so natural ventilation is most effective during the cold season. ▪ Natural ventilation can be organized or disorganized. Natural ventilation ▪ Disorganized ventilation is achieved through cracks and leaks, or by opening the windows and doors of the shelter. ▪ This system is not efficient because it does not allow the calculation and controlled regulation of the air exchange, which is generally weak and unequal. Natural ventilation ▪ Organized ventilation is carried out through specially constructed facilities located in the closing elements of the shelters. ▪ This system has a better performance, because it allows to calculate and adjust the air exchange from the variation of the section of the openings. ▪ According to the air circulation mode, organized natural ventilation can be: ▪ horizontal ▪ vertical ▪ mixed Natural ventilation ▪ Horizontal ventilation is achieved through openings (square, rectangular, circular) located in the upper part of the longitudinal walls of the shelter. ▪ Air circulation can be done in both directions and is dependent on the direction of the winds. ▪ Fresh air does not go down to the level of animals, where noxious gases are accumulated. ▪ The system is not recommended. Natural ventilation ▪ Vertical ventilation is carried out using ventilation chimneys placed at ceiling level. ▪ The chimneys are divided into two compartments, one for the supply, the other for the evacuation of contaminated air. ▪ The exchange of air is difficult and uneven, and close to the chimneys, are “dead” zones, not ventilated. ▪ This system is not recommended either.  vertical ventilation natural ventilation Natural ventilation ▪ Mixed ventilation triggers a natural flow of air, through the supply of clean air through the openings in the walls (admission inlets) and the evacuation of contaminated air through the upper part of the shelter, once is heated. ▪ It is the most efficient system that calculates the dimensions of the openings for air circulation, but also adjusting the flow according to animals needs.  Natural ventilation ▪ The amount of circulated air depends on ▪ the surface area of the inlet and outlet openings section ▪ the aspiration height (H), represented by the difference in height between he air admission and air evacuation openings ▪ the difference in temperature (t) or air mass (G), between the external environment and the shelter. ▪ For an efficient air exchange ▪ the height of the aspiration point must be at least 3 m ▪ the temperature difference between outside and inside equal to or greater than 10 °C ▪ These ratios explain the reduced efficiency of horizontal ventilation, in which the admission and evacuation of air are at the same level. Natural ventilation ▪ The intake of fresh air ▪ through the admission inlets placed on the longitudinal walls of the shelter, at different heights. ▪ the most practical and economic are the horizontal opening inlets. Natural ventilation ▪ The size of admission surface of air for a shelter is obtained by a calculation and represents 70 to 75% of the evacuation surface ▪ because the incoming air, colder, occupies a smaller volume, while the air inlet is effected exclusively through these ventilation openings ▪ the inlets are square or rectangular ▪ the most practical dimensions are 20 x 20 cm or 20 x 30 cm  Natural ventilation ▪ For a more uniform admission of clean air, a larger number of inlets is required (on average 4 for an evacuation chimney). ▪ These should be placed in the upper part of the walls, as high as possible, between the windows, but rarely above the windows. ▪ For protection against wind and rain, the outer opening of the inlet will be protected with a protection made of hard material (wooden boards), which goes down below the lower edge of the inlet. ▪ The protection against rodents and birds penetration is achieved using a metal net that has a mesh of at least 1 cm in diameter. The inner opening of the inlet is equipped with movable shutters that allow the adjustment of the opening. Air admission inlets in the side walls of a poultry shed Natural ventilation ▪ Contaminated air is evacuated through evacuation chimney. ▪ The evacuation area for a shelter is obtained by a calculation. ▪ For a uniform evacuation, several square section chimneys of 40 to 60 cm, are placed in the upper part of the shelter, in centered position or on 2 to 3 rows for the largest shelters.  Natural ventilation ▪ The chimneys are made of planed tiles inside - to reduce the friction of the air - or in sheet metal, with a circular section. ▪ They must be thermally insulated to prevent condensation on their surface and the drop of water drops on the bodies of animals or on the ground. ▪ Their location starts at the ceiling or below the roof - for shelters without a ceiling - and must extend beyond the top edge of the roof by 50 to 70 cm. Natural ventilation ▪ The chimneys have their own roof for protection against precipitation and the walls ▪ are provided with downward-facing shutters for air evacuation and rainfall protection during storms. ▪ The distance to be expected between the shutters will be appropriate, so as to avoid the entry of the birds. ▪ The shutters can be replaced by a wire mesh, which is cheaper. Natural ventilation ▪ The lower opening of the chimneys is equipped with movable valves, operable from the inside, which allow the variation of the opening according to the needs. ▪ The air velocity through the chimneys must remain between 0.75 and 1.5 m/s and can be calculated and adapted by extending the top of the chimneys. ▪ Evacuation chimneys are expensive. Natural ventilation ▪ Modern solutions opt for evacuation slots at the edge of the roof. The width of the slot is 5 cm for each 3 m wide of the shelter. ▪ The slots are open, the circulation of ascending air prevents the entry of precipitation. ▪ The slots can be equipped with valves for adjusting the evacuation area. Natural ventilation ▪ Given the continuous variation of the volume to be ventilated, the dimensions of the installation will be calculated so as to meet the maximum needs (for the summer). ▪ For the rest of the year, adapting to actual needs is done by reducing the air admission openings and evacuation chimneys with flaps ▪ the flow of the installations varies Natural ventilation ▪ In large-capacity shelters, the volumes to be ventilated being particularly large, the air inlet is made by windows or by large horizontal openings in the longitudinal walls, provided with thermally insulated shutters, while the evacuation is effected by the shed. ▪ The openings will be dimensioned by calculation. Artificial ventilation ▪ Artificial ventilation (mechanical, dynamic) is intended to replace air with fans equipped with electric motors. ▪ This type of ventilation is independent of any difference in temperature between the shelter and the outdoor environment, with optimal efficiency in all seasons and an easily adjustable flow rate of the installation. ▪ The practice of artificial ventilation has a number of advantages ▪ a better microclimate quality ▪ a better production yields ▪ lower mortality and livestock diseases ▪ But artificial ventilation also has disadvantages ▪ the high cost of investments ▪ an increase in the consumption of electrical energy ▪ quite intense noise in shelters ▪ This type of ventilation is used in large, intensively farmed farms where natural ventilation is inadequate, especially during the hot season. ▪ Mechanical ventilation systems consist of: ▪ fans ▪ openings for admission of air ▪ openings for the evacuation of air ▪ pipes for directing the air ▪ control devices for the operation of the installation ▪ Ventilation systems may be equipped with air conditioning systems (heating, cooling, humidification, filtering, etc.). ▪ The fans are used to circulate the air through the ducts from one space / room to another. ▪ There are two types of fan classification: ▪ according to their flow rate (debit): adjustable flow fans and fans with fixed flow rate ▪ according to their pressure and shape of the propellers: axial-helical fans and centrifugal fans ▪ Adjustable flow fans can operate at multiple levels, depending on the number of turns of the propellers. These fans are essential for continuous ventilation. ▪ Fans with fixed flow rate operate only at one level, in the on-off mode. For this reason, they are not compatible with continuous ventilation, without significant energy consumption during the cold season. ▪ Centrifugal fans can function as adjustable or fixed flow fans, providing a large volume of air, at a lower cost. They are mainly used for aspiring ventilation, longitudinal or transverse. ▪ Axial and helical fans provide a smaller volume of air and operate at lower pressures, being quieter than centrifugal fans. ▪ They are used in the aspiring ventilation system. ▪ Currently is available on the market a special type of axial fans used as ceiling fans. They are adjustable flow. They absorb warm air from the ceiling and push it back to the floor, creating a uniform temperature in the shelter, by mixing hot and cold air. ▪ Depending on the air movement in the shelter, the classification of mechanical ventilation systems is as follows: ▪ 1. Aspiring ventilation ▪ 2. Suppress ventilation ▪ 3. Balanced pressure ventilation 1. Aspiring ventilation (on the principle of negative pressure). This type of ventilation is to exhaust the vitiated air from the shelter (with fans), the created depression will determine the entry of clean atmospheric air through the admission inlets placed in the longitudinal walls. The air circulation can be in natural flow, when the fans are positioned at the top of the shelter, or in reverse flow by the placement of the fans at the base of the longitudinal walls. Generally, the fans are mounted in vertical ventilation chimneys installed in the roof. For a uniform aspiration of the contaminated air, we can use a metallic pipeline, located in the upper part of the shelter, provided with ramifications, located above the boxes, below the floor or below the circulation alleys (as in shelters for poultry and rabbits). ▪ The intake air is directed by the vertical pipes, which exceed the height of the shelter so as not to project to the surrounding shelters. The pipes must have a section of 20% more than the fans, to facilitate the evacuation. ▪ This type of ventilation is widely used. ▪ Air movement can be controlled when the construction is hermetic and evacuation fans and air inlets are correctly positioned. 2. Suppress ventilation (on principle of positive pressure). This type of ventilation consists in the forced introduction of clean air into the shelter, which causes a constant pressure, hence a free evacuation of the vitiated air. The fans are placed in the longitudinal walls, causing a transverse circulation of the air (strongly influenced by the wind) or more appropriately at the ends of the shelters, causing a longitudinal circulation of the air. The circulation and distribution of air takes place in metal or polyethylene ducts, provided with holes, located above the animals' boxes. ▪ In winter, the air to be introduced must be heated. The air is evacuated by the chimneys located in the upper part of the buildings or in the upper parts of the side walls, protected by shutters. ▪ This system allows exact control of the air flow in motion. ▪ Overpressure can reduce air currents or even prevent them from forming. ▪ When the building elements are not totally sealed, this system can cause problems due to the formation of condensation. ▪ The use of fans installed in the roof may be inappropriate, especially in the absence of wind and heat; in these circumstances, the fans force the entrace of warm air from outside. ▪ 3. Balanced pressure ventilation ▪ In this system, fans are used for both the admission and the evacuation of air. ▪ In order to avoid the formation of strong currents, the air inlets and evacuation openings will be placed at different levels (at the bottom and at the top) and at a distance, so the air can travel greater distance through the shelter, avoiding the interpenetration of clean air. ▪ ▪ Its use is indicated especially in the case of shelters that can not be equipped with admission inlets in the side walls. ▪ Compared to other ventilation systems, this one has a higher energy consumption.  Animal related indicators (direct) ❑ They reflect more accurately the real welfare of the animal than the indirect indicators, related to resources ⮚ Indirect indicators - factors that have an effect on the animal and can influence its welfare ⮚ Direct indicators - measure the actual degree of animal welfare, thus including the effect of different influencing factors Animal related indicators (direct) ❖can be recorded by direct observation of the animal - even if the animal is not in its environment. ❖the information provided compose a "photo" of the animal's present state ❖the image can provide details on the past experiences of the animal and at the same time can predict the possible future evolution  DIRECT INDICATORS OF ANIMAL WELFARE 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL INDICATORS 2. PATHOLOGICAL INDICATORS 3. PRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE 4. REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS 5. PRODUCTIVE LONGEVITY 6. BEHAVIORAL INDICATORS  1. Physiological indicators ❖Physiological indicators are among the first indicators used to measure animal welfare. ❖World Society for the Protection of Animals, 2009, includes between physiological indicators - heart rate, respiratory rate, adrenal response, blood pressure, catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline), some enzymes and some metabolites. ❖Changes in heart rate have been shown to be relevant in identifying stressful situations, especially in horses. Physiological indicators ❖The interpretation of physiological indicators should take into account not only animal species but also age and category. ❖There is evidence that the ability to experience stress and pain differs in young animals from adults.  Physiological indicators European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 2006, considers that the next aspects can be used as physiological indicators in measuring animal welfare: ◦ Hormonal indicators (hormones of hypothalamo-pituitary-cortico-suprarenal axis, catecholamines, opioid response hormones); ◦ Biochemical indicators (parameters related to the nutritional level, evaluation of the function of specific tissues - heart, skeletal muscle, liver, adrenal glands, etc.); ◦ Hematological indicators (assessment of dehydration degree, anemia, total leucocyte counts and leucocyte type, etc.); ◦ Immune parameters (determination of complement, lysozyme, bactericidal activity of serum, acute phase proteins, etc.); ◦ Changes in physiological parameters (cardiac and respiratory frequency, body temperature). Physiological indicators ▪ The use of physiological parameters as indicators of animal welfare has the advantage of showing the relationship of the animal to the stress caused by the environment (acute and chronic), with pain and suffering. ▪ Another advantage is that they are recorded using accurate, standardized analytical methods for a number of available parameters.  Physiological indicators ▪ The disadvantages of using these indicators are: ▪ The need to collect a whole set of values for meaningful interpretation; ▪ High volume of work; ▪ Significant financial investment; ▪ sophisticated level of sampling and sample processing; ▪ The difficulty of correlating the values of hormonal parameters with the degree of animal suffering; ▪ the fact that the stress response can simply reflect normal adaptive responses; ▪ lack of consistency between the results of some studies.  2. Pathological indicators ▪ Clinical signs associated with diseases and injuries are considered to be relevant indicators of well-being, because any disruption of the health state represent the reducing of the welfare. ▪ The absence of lesions and diseases is not sufficient to prove the proper welfare of the animal. ▪ According to some studies, the relationship between skin lesions and microclimate conditions and the relationship between animal behavior and health are relevant indicators of well-being.  Pathological indicators ▪ Several authors have suggested that the welfare of an animal is precarious when it comes to a pre-pathologic status. ▪ Thus, pre-pathologic status is a parameter of well-being, being the best indicator showing that the animal suffers from long-term stress. ▪ Disturbance of the normal function of the immune system may be the first acceptable indication of a pre-pathological condition. ▪ The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens can be damaged, making the animal vulnerable to disease.  Pathological indicators ▪ The usual method, the simplest and most convenient, for the evaluation of the immune function follows the total number of leukocytes and the leukocyte formula from the blood samples. However, these results are not obtained constantly and are difficult to interpret. ▪ Other indicators used to investigate immune function in animals ▪ the concentration of total immunoglobulins, ▪ the concentration of different types of immunoglobulins ▪ the determination of circulating immune complexes.  Pathological indicators ❖A disadvantage of using immune parameters in assessing animal welfare in general is that there is insufficient evidence to prove that the disruption of immune function always leads to adverse effects on animal welfare. ❖It is certain that the decrease in immune reactivity increases the risk of the animal in question. ❖the most common pathological indicators ❖the injuries ❖the status of the immune function ❖lameness ❖the presence of diseases in general  Pathological indicators ▪ At farm level or in population of animals, the increase of mortality and morbidity is evidence of a significant reduction in health and thus of animal welfare (EFSA / AHAW, 2006). ▪ Animal mortality is calculated by reporting the number of dead animals within a given time interval at the number of animals in the herd that are in a risk situation. ▪ Mortality can be calculated for each disease, disease category or overall (regardless of the cause of death). Pathological indicators Overall mortality can be related to different age groups, as follows: ◦ perinatal mortality - refers to both dead animals and those dying from dystocia; ◦ neonatal mortality - includes dead animals in the first two weeks of life; ◦ post-neonatal mortality - refers to the lactation period; ◦ mortality in weaned animals up to the age of mating; ◦ mortality in adult animals. Pathological indicators ▪ Morbidity is the proportion of diseased animals, relative to the total number of animals in the herd or to those exposed to the disease. ▪ Characterization of morbidity in a livestock is done by the following indicators: ▪ the proportion of diseased animals; ▪ rate of diseased animals; ▪ prevalence and incidence.  Pathological indicators The proportion of diseased animals is the ratio between the number of diseased animals and the total number of animals. The rate of diseased animals is the ratio between the number of diseased animals and the number of healthy ones. Prevalence is the total number of animals with a particular pathological condition, based on the total number of animals present at one point (prevalence of the moment) or over a given period (prevalence of the period). Incidence is the number of new cases occurring in an animal population over a given period of time (day, week, month, etc.), relative to the total number of animals that are in a risk situation.  3. Productive performance ▪ Productive performance is an indicator of well-being widely used in the past, sometimes considered even the most important parameter of well-being. ▪ For example, Broom (1993) believes that weight gain, reproductive capacity and productive lifetime are very valuable indicators in welfare assessment. ▪ At present, the direct correlation between productive performance and well- being is not fully accepted.  Productive performance ▪ Smidt (1995) considers that low productive performance (acute or chronic) should always be considered relevant to welfare issues and unaffected productive performance indicates good welfare, but exceptions are possible. ▪ In fact, the decline in productive or reproductive performance can be used as an indicator of poor welfare, but a high level of production can not be equal to good welfare (EFSA / Panel on Animal Health and Welfare - AHAW, 2006). ▪ Intensive production may be linked to non-specific diseases (EFSA / AHAW, 2006). Productive performance ▪ Extremely high performances, such as highly productive dairy cows, can be considered antagonists to well-being, since animals selected for high-level production are generally more susceptible to any management imbalance. ▪ Large milk production in cows is often associated with increased incidence of lameness, mastitis, damage to udder ligaments and dystocia.  4. Reproductive success ▪ The normal course of sexual behavior and the reproduction success is an indication of optimal welfare. ▪ For the assessment of breeding ability in an animal herd, consideration shall be given to: ▪ the interval between calving and the installation of the next gestation (service period) ▪ the amount of time (days or months) between the birth of a calf and the birth of a subsequent calf, both from the same cow (calving interval); ▪ birth rate (natality rate) ▪ viability of products. Reproductive success ▪ Birth rate is the ratio between the number of animals born per year and the total number of females able to reproduce and to perform natural mating. ▪ Sometimes, the term birth rate is used in a broader sense, representing the ratio between the number of animals obtained per year and the total number of individuals in a population. Reproductive success ▪ Birth rate is a synthetic, complex indicator, being the result of the interaction between the hereditary potential and the direct or indirect action of internal factors (age, etc.) and external environmental factors (fodder, watering, microclimate, animal density, etc.). ▪ At the same time, birth rate is a measure of the degree of accommodation to the environment, thus implicitly a measure of animal welfare.  Reproductive success Birth rate depends on: ◦ conception rate (percentage of fecundity), which represents the ratio between the pregnant females after mating, detected by different methods and the total number of females mounted; ◦ infecundity females percentage of total breeding females or vice versa, percentage of females who have calved; ◦ the percentage of abortions deducted from the reporting of females who give birth versus the total number of pregnant females; ◦ Prolificity that represents the number of offspring relative to females who gave birth. Reproductive success ▪ The appreciation of welfare by birth rate criterion should be made by comparison with animals of the same race and having the same paternal lineage. ▪ Maximum birth rate is difficult to achieve, because it depends on a combination of factors that are less known and difficult to assure.  5. Production longevity ▪ The production longevity, also called exploitation time, is defined as the time from first calving/ respectively from first mating to male to the last until removal from breeding. ▪ This synthetic and complex indicator reflects technological conditions, including animal welfare. ▪ The reform of necessity consists in elimination from the flock of poorly productive and diseased animals. The high proportion of reformed animals correlates with precarious and very poor welfare. ▪ Poor management will increases proportion of reformed animals and morbidity in all animal species.  Production longevity If farm management results in an average of only four or five cattle in a cow, and biochemical indicators that confirm the existence of chronic stress, overall welfare can be considered poor as compared to cows whose management leads to the possibility of obtaining of eight or nine calves from a cow. Even if the reduction of the exploitation time is a poor welfare indicator, it does not mean that the economic efficiency in such farms would be necessarily inadequate. Ideal would be to achieve productive biological potential in the absence of poor signs of welfare. This requires careful ethological evaluation of exploitation technologies before their introduction into farms.  Production longevity ▪ The optimal exploitation time is that time that maximizes either the economic benefit or the production. ▪ Since in cows the production increases with age, being the maximum at the fourth and fifth lactation (after which decreases), the maximum yield for life is made by cows with a seven- lactation period of exploitation. ▪ The usual cow elimination rate is 25-30%, but the maximum profit is at a replacement rate of 10%. ▪ Lowering the replacement rate to 10-15%, however, implies a high level of health and well- being, which most farms can not achieve. 6. ETHOLOGICAL INDICATORS (BEHAVIORAL) ❖ Behavior = the total of observable animal activities, integrated and coordinated at the body level - in response to sensory perceptions of the environment - for survival and reproduction. ❖ Behavior - an important indicator of welfare ❖ Knowledge of the behavior of domestic animals is important both in terms of ZOOTECHNICAL PRODUCTION AND MEDICAL.  ►Only animals with normal behavior can produce at their genetic potential; ►Ensuring the appropriate environment (space, ►Studing the behavior of animals on the communication possibilities between animals) production flow can lead to the identification of throughout production is a minimum causes and optimal remediation solutions to requirement for the expression of normal sexual ensure the complete welfare of animals and, behavior without which productive implicitly, to increase production; performance can not be achieved; OPTIMIZATION OF ZOOTECHNICAL PRODUCTION ►The manifestation of a normal behavior in animals during breeding and exploitation is a ►Mechanization and automation of animal guarantee of ensuring the specific requirements production is inconceivable without a detailed (at least) – regarding the feeding, the watering, study of behavior - to ensure a positive animal- the microclimate, space and rest conditions; machine interaction, which can lead to an ⇨which represents a favorable premise for increase in productivity; ensuring economic profitability BEHAVIOR AND MEDICAL ISSUES ⮚ Usually, behavioral disorders are associated with poor or very poor animal welfare. ⮚ Careful observation of the animals behavior in their living environment can provide many useful information for diagnosing, preventing and combating certain diseases (diseases of the limbs and mammary gland, broncho- and enteropathy, reproductive disorders). ⮚ that appear in animals due to improper breeding and exploitation technologies - From a medical point of view - it is important to identify behavioral disorders in the livestock intensive systems. - These can be disease symptoms, but at the same time preventing the behavioral manifestations can cause disease in animals. METHODS OF STUDYING THE BEHAVIOR - Detailed and extended observations - Descriptions - Quantitative determinations and statistical processing - One observes carefully the movements, positions, sound emissions, etc., Related to the main behaviors - the mode of consumption of the feed, the rumination, the watering - defecation, urination - displacement - mating - body care - relationships with neighboring animals, animal resting etc. ⮚ Duration or intensity of behavioral manifestations + the circumstances in which they are expressed ⮚ Farm animals - observation → in their living environment (in the shelter) ⮚ Animals raised in intensive systems → the vet must know the normal behavior of free animals or in extensive systems ⮚ THE ETHOGRAM - THE MOST ELEMENTARY ETHOLOGICAL STUDY ⮚ the inventory of all the activities that make up the behavioral repertoire of a species ⮚ direct observation of how the animal behaves in the most different normal situations  The ethogram should be based on photos, audio-video recordings and timings. ❖ Audio-video recording is frequently used in the study of animal behavior, as it allows the movement to be reproduced. ❖ In applied ethology, ethograms are mainly used to identify deficiencies in livestock farming, which lead to the impossibility of manifesting certain highly motivated behaviors or the appearance of behavioral disorders. FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES OF BEHAVIOR STIMULI, REFLEXES, INSTINCTS ❖ THE STIMULI ARE REPRESENTED BY THE INFORMATION RECEIVED BY ORGANISMS FROM THE ENVIRONMENT THROUGH THE SENSORY ORGANS. ❖ The animal organism receives permanently numerous information from its environment through physical, chemical or biological stimuli. ❖ POTENTIAL STIMULI turn into EFFECTIVE OR EFFICIENT STIMULI when they are able to determine specific behavioral responses in an organism. ❖ The same stimulus may or may not be effective, depending on the condition of the body. Certain behaviors may be triggered by a combination of two or more effective stimuli. They can come from the same species (intraspecific stimuli) or from different species (interspecific stimuli). ❖ Reflexes are reactions of an organism triggered by the action of stimuli. ❖ Depending on the way they are produced, reflexes can be unconditioned and conditioned. Unconditioned reflexes (innate) are expressed in a similar way to all individuals of a species, because they are transmitted hereditary. ◦ They are functional throughout the life of the healthy animal. The conditioned reflexes appear after the repeated association of two excitants from the environment: an excitant that produces a conditioned reflex and an excitant that causes an unconditioned reflex. ⮚ Due to the combination of the two excitants, temporary connections are made at the level of the cerebral cortex, which can cause, even only in the presence of the conditional excitant, unconditioned reflex reactions. ⮚ The best-known and most thorough early work on classical conditioning was done by Ivan Pavlov. ▪ Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food. Pavlov called the dogs' anticipatory salivation "psychic secretion". ▪ Putting these informal observations to an experimental test, Pavlov presented a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a metronome) and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus. ▪ Pavlov concluded that if a particular stimulus in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food then that stimulus could become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. ▪ In Pavlov's experiments the unconditioned stimulus (US) was the dog food because its effects did not depend on previous experience. ▪ The bell's sound is originally a neutral stimulus (NS) because it does not elicit salivation in the dogs. ▪ After conditioning, the bell's sound becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) or conditional stimulus; because its effects depend on its association with food. ⮚ INSTINCT is a complex of innate reflexes that appear at various external stimuli and express an innate tendency of behavior ⮚ characteristic of the species and with an important role in the adaptation, defense, feeding and reproduction of the body. ⮚ Instinct is more or less a rigid behavior, comprising certain behavioral patterns, in synchronous or successive coordination (DECUN, 2004). ⮚ A certain stimulus instinctively triggers a certain behavioral pattern, and its development can be a trigger for another behavioral pattern. IN ANIMALS THERE IS A HIERARCHY OF INSTINCTS. - THE MAJOR OR DOMINANT INSTINCTS ▪ the acquisition of food, of water, ▪ reproduction ▪ body care (comfort behavior) ▪ resting (sleeping) behavior - THE SUBORDINATE INSTINCTS - THEY MANIFEST DEPENDENT AND CORRELATED WITH ACHIEVING MAJOR INSTINCTS. ▪ the selection of the environment ▪ territorialism ▪ aggressiveness ✔ IN ANIMALS - THERE IS NO DISTINCT SOCIAL INSTINCT ✔ The so-called social behavior is the tendency of some animals to be close to others of the same species. ✔ In most species, this tendency is pronounced, as an appetitive behavior, in major instinctive activities (during the mating period, the resting or for certain body care). ✔ Although it is frequently used instead of maternal behavior, the phrase maternal instinct, from the scientific point of view, there is insufficient evidence to support the fact that the mother's attitude of protecting the conception product is always really instinctive. ▪ From the observations made by Lorenz (1969) it follows that the maternal attitude of the turkeys is not the expression of a maternal instinct, but the expression of the inhibition of the aggressive instinct, which is blocked by the characteristic sound of the turkey chickens. ▪ Turkeys are ready to protect one plush chickens, which vocalize in a characteristic way and kill their own chicken, which for some reason does not vocalize - it can be assumed that there is no innate recognition and consequently there is no maternal instinct in turkeys. In order for a behavior to be considered instinctive, several conditions must be met, namely: ❖ The behavioral pattern should be present in all individuals of the same category (sex, age, physiological state, etc.); ❖ The behavior appears as a response to a specific stimulus; ❖ The behavior is invariable and can be predicted whenever the specific stimulus is present; ❖ The behavioral response does not depend on the individual experience (it also appears in individuals raised in total isolation); ❖ The behavior is related to the adaptation, reproduction, survival, preservation of the species, etc. LEARNING ▪ Learning is a behavioral change related to the influences of the environment following a processed information ▪ Learning ability is more important in the first period of life MOTIVATION = is a process inside the brain, extremely complex and insufficiently known. ⮚ In ethology, motivation is the disposition of action, that is, the preparation or the tendency of one animal to perform a certain behavior. ⮚ This availability is determined by a set of internal factors, external stimuli and the antecedents of the activated behavior.  Animals feel good as long as changes in the environment are predictable. Under these conditions, they prepare behaviorally, having a choice between the numerous response patterns, including by activating the cerebral analgesic system based on opioids. When there is a mismatch between the expected state and the key signal, frustration occurs that generates a state of tension. Frustration also occurs when a barrier is imposed that makes it impossible to conduct motivated behavior. If, for example, chicken feed is covered with a transparent foil before feeding, this leads to frustration, which is expressed through agitation and aggression. In particular cases - motivational conflicts appear → ambivalent behavior or redirected behavior AMBIVALENT BEHAVIOR → Occurs when animals are under the impulse of two instinctive activated but opposite tendencies, which do not allow the discharge of energy through one from the channels of the instincts that are in conflict. AMBIVALENCE is the experience of having an attitude towards someone or something that contains both positively and negatively valenced components. THE REDIRECTED BEHAVIOR → Occurs if one of the two instincts in conflict is blocked only partially by the action of the other, and thus a redirection of the energy discharge to a substitution object follows.  Classically, most discussion of redirected behavior has centered on aggression.  An animal which has been attacked by the dominant individual in its social group may not attack back (due to the possibility of stimulating a more severe attack by the dominant) but may instead redirect its aggression to other, less- dominant, members of the social group.  A seagull in territorial conflict with another seagull, instead of actually attacking it, sometimes deflects its aggressive movement and snatches a bush of grass, calming itself in this way. Broom and Jonson (1993) suggested certain behavioral patterns as a means of providing information on animal welfare: ✔difficulty of movement (when the animals cannot move due to the slippery floor or due to the dimensions of the shelter, especially in the tied-stalls); ✔behavioral problems associated with the lack of resources (the animal has no feed, water or a specific and necessary component of food); ✔behaviors associated with the lack of social or sexual patterns; ✔aggression and stereotypes; ✔apathy and indifference; ✔lack of manifestation of preferences; Abnormal behaviors can be: ❖harmful behaviors which cause insults to the executor or his conspecifics; ❖false behaviors which are performed in the absence of the appropriate substrate or environmental stimuli; ❖apathetic behavior - which suggests a substantial reduction in attention to external stimuli; ❖escape behavior which indicates a desire to leave the limited space in which the animal is kept; ❖redirected behavior occurs when one of the two instincts in conflict is blocked only partially by the action of the other, following a redirection of the energy discharge to a substitution object; it has been described in seagulls, dogs, humans. Stereotypies is a sequence of relatively invariable movements, executed repetitively, so frequently in a certain context, that it cannot be considered part of one of the normal functional systems of the animal. stereotypes are considered to be major indicators of long-term welfare problems. The cause and function of stereotypes are unclear  the animal has difficulties in accommodating to the environmental conditions the animal has a poor welfare  Continuous manifestation of stereotypes may also indicate the presence of physical suffering  The duration and frequency of manifestation was associated with poor housing conditions (for example, the degree of movement limitation in the case of dairy cows).  NON-ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN HORSES ❖ Inadequate conditions - freedom of movement and communication between individuals, feeding, watering, sheltering conditions → behavioral disorders ❖ The existence of behavioral disorders is correlated with the deficiencies related to the housing conditions and exploitation +work performed by animals Equine Stereotypies Oral Locomotor ◦ Cribbing / Windsucking ◦ Head movements (bobbing, ◦ Pica ( xylophagia) tossing, shaking, swinging, ◦ Tongue movements nodding) ◦ Lip movements ◦ Throat rubbing Self-mutilation ◦ Pacing ◦ Self-biting (flank, chest, shoulder) ◦ Weaving ◦ Wall-kicking ◦ Fence or box walking ◦ Lunging into objects ◦ Circling ◦ Stomping, kicking ◦ Pawing Cribbing / Windsucking ❖ Horses develop a characteristic behaviour called crib-biting, where they rest their top teeth on a solid horizontal service and perform swallowing movements. ❖This can lead to weight loss and the marked over-development of neck muscle. It is likely that this behaviour results from a combination of the animals’ genetic predisposition and lack of opportunities to forage. ❖The behaviour is not seen in horses living wild, and seems to develop when horses are kept in stalls where they cannot move around or select from various forages.  Windsucking is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe without needing to grab a solid object. Windsucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior. Cribbing and windsucking have been linked as a causal effect to colic and stomach ulcers Cribbing / Windsucking ❖ Horses develop a characteristic behaviour called crib-biting, where they rest their top teeth on a solid horizontal service and perform swallowing movements. ❖This can lead to weight loss and the marked over-development of neck muscle. It is likely that this behaviour results from a combination of the animals’ genetic predisposition and lack of opportunities to forage. ❖The behaviour is not seen in horses living wild, and seems to develop when horses are kept in stalls where they cannot move around or select from various forages.  Windsucking is a related behavior whereby the horse arches its neck and sucks air into the windpipe without needing to grab a solid object. Windsucking is thought to form part of the mechanism of cribbing, rather than being defined as an entirely separate behavior. Cribbing and windsucking have been linked as a causal effect to colic and stomach ulcers  Wood-chewing or xylophagia ✔it does not involve sucking in air; the horse simply gnaws on wood rails or boards as if they were food. ✔ repeated chewing - up to 3000 times / day - of wood surfaces - more frequently in young horses fed with concentrated and low fiber feed - under 1 kg / 100 kg body weight → cold and humid environment from concrete shelters, not thermally insulated, favors the occurrence of this behavior (winter) ⮚for prevention → increasing the proportion of fibers in the ratio ⮚It is also recommended to increase the working time or pasture, as it can sometimes be caused by boredom. Coprophagy - a form of pica, which is a term that describes an unusual appetite for objects with little or no nutritional value, such as ingestion of feces and is normal behavior at foals in the first month of life.  high risk in transmitting parasitic diseases  in adult horses, it can be considered an abnormal behavior that is associated with deficiencies in nutritional principles, mineral salts and vitamins.  Providing a balanced diet with green, fibrous feed and concentrated feed can lead to attenuation or even disappearance of coprophagy. Weaving ◦ is a locomotor stereotypy, defined as the repetitive weight shift from one forelimb to the other, often combined with lateral swaying of the head. Box-walking ◦ A box-walker will make repeated circuits of his stable or pace back and forth behind the door. ◦ Usually a result of anxiety due to confinement and separation from others in the horse’s ‘herd’, box-walking is sometimes triggered by an unusual commotion in the yard or a move to an unfamiliar stable. Stall Kicking - Stereotypical stall kicking involves repetitive striking of the stall walls with the hooves or hocks or stomping a hind leg against the floor with no target animal.  Stereotypical kicking produces detrimental concussion of bones and joints and can damage stall walls. Stall kicking may be a form of self-stimulation or cause satisfaction from the sound made by kicking wood.  Stereotypical kicking, like pawing, often begins at feeding time, when the animal is exposed to various auditory, olfactory, and visual cues.  Because it is eventually fed, the horse learns that kicking or pawing is rewarded by food and may begin to paw or kick progressively earlier. Stomping  Pawing Pawing (dragging a foot across the ground or motioning in the air) is a normal behavior that becomes a stereotypy when excessive. Horses paw in a variety of situations and with various apparent motivations: if confined, to attain proximity to another horse, to stimulate a recumbent foal to rise, in anticipation of feed, while eating grain or (more rarely) hay, when restricted from moving forward, and if in pain. Confinement can lead to apparent frustration and pawing. While confined in a box stall for training, a Standardbred stallion that had spent most of its life on pasture dug a hole 1.5 meters (four feet) deep. If dirt floors are replaced with concrete, a horse may stop pawing but may cause considerable hoof wear if pawing continues.  Some animals paw while eating grain or hay and apparently not frustrated. In its natural state, a grazing horse continually steps and nibbles.  If food is presented in a stationary location (e.g., grain in a bucker or hay in a net), pawing may represent intention movements to perform the normal grazing locomotor sequence.  Unless the pawing continues beyond feeding, it may not be appropriately considered a stereotypy.  Pawing while restrained from moving is similar to pawing to escape confinement.  Pawing in pain may exhibit frustration at not escaping the pain. In horses with colic, such pawing is frequently a prelude to roling.  Stereotypical pawing may be managed by altering the stall floor surface to prevent holes (concrete floor) or to prevent excessive trauma to the limbs (heavy rubber matting). Providing more turnout time also is helpful. Immobility ❖ The immobility is manifested by the refusal of the horses to leave the shelter. ❖ This behavioral disorder is a consequence of ❖the horse's attachment to the shelter or to the group he is part of ❖the fear of work he is to perform in the outside environment  NON-ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN BOVINES ⚫intersuckling, tongue rolling, aggression Intersuckling:  Non-nutritional suckling is a common problem in calves;  the suckling calf will suck on other calves or the cow on any available appendage or skin tag.  This can lead to skin irritation and even umbilical hernias (if the suckling calf suckles on the umbilical sheath of another calf).  Poor nutrition may influence the development of this behavior (increasing roughage can minimize the problem).  Penning or isolating suckling calves does not solve the problem - the calf will continue to suckle on buckets or engage in self-suckling.  The problem is more common in calves weaned after 6 days of age.  Non-nutritional suckling occurs mostly after feeding; providing dry teats next to the feeding area can help reduce incidence of this behavior.  Other ways to minimize this behavior include placing a serrated nose ring in the suckling calf, applying repellent materials to suckled areas, and fitting a muzzle.  These may prevent suckling but do not reduce the motivation to do so, and calf welfare should be considered. Tongue Rolling  Tongue rolling occurs mainly in veal cattle and is most likely a stereotypic behavior resulting from confinement.  The affected calf flicks its tongue outside and rolls it back inside the mouth, followed by swallowing saliva.  One study showed that veal calves that displayed tongue rolling had no abomasal ulcers, while those that did not show this behavior had ulcers.  This may indicate that the behavior reduces stress. However, calves that showed tongue rolling as well as those that did not had abomasal erosions.  Increasing stimulation (eg, adding sucking teats) may reduce incidence of this behavior. Aggression  Aggression in cattle is usually a result of fear, learning, and hormonal state.  Aggression between cows is worse than that between bulls.  Horned cattle will bunt (push or strike with the horns) and strike an opponent on the side.  Polled cows will use their head as a battering ram.  Two cows can fight for a long period with resting periods in between.  Each cow will rest while pushing its muzzle between the udder and hindquarter of the other cow to immobilize it.  Aggression toward people usually includes bunting, kicking, and crushing.  Aggressive and dangerous animals should be culled.  Aggression in Bulls  Bulls are notorious for their unpredictable aggression.  Some bulls may mount others, and these may respond with aggression.  Such fights can end with serious injuries and even death, especially if the bulls are horned.  Dairy bulls are commonly more aggressive (and also larger and heavier) than beef bulls.  The bull may paw and dig in the ground, and horned bulls may kneel on the front legs and dig using their horns.  Because hand-reared bulls are more aggressive toward other bulls, it is thought that inadequate socialization may contribute to this behavior. Aggressive bulls should be separated from others and perhaps culled if dangerous to people.  Kicking:  Kicking is mainly a problem in beef cattle and is seen most commonly in heifers.  Beef cattle are not selectively bred for gentleness and are handled minimally.  These animals can be dangerous when placed in pens or cages for examination and may cause severe injuries.  Such animals should be handled carefully and potentially sedated. Food rewards can be offered for calm behaviors.  NON-ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN SHEEP Wool-eating and homosexuality in rams Wool Eating  Wool eating or wool plucking occurs in sheep, especially in lambs.  It is considered that a deficiency of minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium chloride, copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt, as well as vitamin or protein deficiency might be the cause of the disease Akgül et al (2000) showed that clinical signs and abnormalities present in lambs with wool eating disease include: ◦ growth retardation ◦ diarrhea, poor appetite ◦ Salivation ◦ abnormal hooves ◦ swollen joints ◦ stiff gait ◦ hair loss ◦ parakeratosis ◦ compromised disease resistance  Homosexuality in rams  Around 8–10% of rams have an exclusive homosexual orientation.  Such rams prefer to court and mount other rams only, even in the presence of estrous ewes. Moreover, around 18–22% of rams are bisexual.  Several observations indicate that male–male sexual preference in rams is sexually motivated. Rams routinely perform the same courtship behaviors (including foreleg kicks, nudges, vocalizations, anogenital sniffs and flehmen) prior to mounting other males as observed when other rams court and mount estrous females.  A number of studies have reported differences in brain structure and function between male-oriented and female-oriented rams, suggesting that sexual partner preferences are neurologically hard-wired.  A 2003 study states that homosexuality in male sheep is associated with a region in the rams' brains which the authors call the "ovine Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus" (oSDN) which is half the size of the corresponding region in heterosexual male sheep.  Homosexual orientation in rams is not affected by rearing conditions  rearing males in all-male groups  rearing male and female lambs together  early exposure of adolescent males to females  early social experiences with females do not promote or prevent homosexual orientation in rams  Male-oriented partner preference also does not appear to be an artifact caused by captivity or human management of sheep.  Homosexual orientation and same-sex mounting in rams is not related  to dominance, social rank or competitive ability  NON-ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN PIGS The non-adaptive behavior in pigs is manifested in various forms: ◦ Cannibalism - Tail and ear biting ◦ Reproductive behaviour problems such as abnormal mating behaviour and abnormal maternal behaviour; ◦ Eating too much or too little; dominance relationships that prevent some animals from having access to food and water; ◦ Abnormal dunging habits; ◦ Bar biting; ◦ Vacuum chewing (chewing when nothing is present); ◦ Persistent inguinal nose thrusting (PINT). ◦ PINT is defined as occurring when a pig repeatedly thrusts its nose into the inguinal area of a resting pig with the top of its snout, until the recipient pig moves. It is a behaviour pattern of high-ranking pigs, although other pigs do it; ◦ Various stereotypies, which are repeated actions with no goal direction, have been described in tethered sows when not provided with straw; ◦ Snout rubbing, when pigs rub their snouts on the flanks of other pigs causing necrosed areas; Bar biting and cannibalism (ear biting, tail biting ) The cause of these behavioral deviations is the impossibility of the pigs to manifest the food-seeking behavior. Non-adaptive behavior - more common in sows housed in individual cages  The cannibalism ❖Cannibalism is more common in young pigs between 25-50 kg body weight. ❖This is a multifactorial syndrome generated by: ❖ poor hygiene conditions (agglomeration and microclimate); ❖ nutritional deficiencies (protein, amino acids, macro and microelements, vitamins); ❖ partial water deprivation; ❖ parasitic dermatitis; ❖ hard discontinuous floors; ❖ lack of bedding;  Bar biting  indicate severe frustration and stress, and sows in crates can exhibit behaviour likened to clinical depression.  Feed is often restricted during pregnancy, causing chronic hunger and increasing the level of frustration.  Shortly before she is due to give birth (referred to as ‘farrowing’), a sow is typically moved to a farrowing crate.  This is similar to a sow stall except that there is space to the side for the piglets.  Bars keep the sow out of the piglets' lying area to prevent crushing.  Farrowing crates also severely restrict the sow’s movement and frustrate her strong motivation to build a nest before giving birth.  They prevent the sow from being able to get away from her piglets, for example if they bite her teats.  NON-ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR IN POULTRY ❖The most common non-adaptive behaviors are the cannibalism and the hysteria, mainly generated by the struggle to establish the group hierarchy and to survive in an inadequate living environment. ❖Cannibalism stems from aggressive behavior of chickens and turkeys that may begin by feather pecking by socially dominant birds.  The cannibalism - factors that can affect cannibalism: ▪ crowding ▪ excessive light intensity ▪ nutritional imbalances ▪ insufficient feeder space ▪ mineral and vitamin deficiencies ▪ skin injuries ▪ failure to remove any dead birds daily Methods of control Beak-trimming - is the most common method of preventing or reducing injuries by cannibalism. ◦ In a three-year study of floor-housed laying hens, death by cannibalism was reported as 7% in beak-trimmed birds but was increased to 18% in non- trimmed birds. Group size - Increased group sizes in larger cages or floor systems can elevate the risk of cannibalism and feather pecking, probably due to the spread of the behavior through social learning. Light manipulations - Lights are sometimes provided in nest-boxes to attract hens to use the nests, but this practice has been correlated with an increased risk of cannibalism. Perches - Rearing chicks with access to perches by four weeks of age has been associated with increased use of perches, and reduced cannibalism, in adulthood. Selective breeding and genetics - A sibling-selection program has genetically selected a low mortality line which shows decreased mortality from cannibalism compared to a control line. Eyewear - Cannibalism may be reduced by fitting hens with a range of eyewear. Rose-tinted glasses or contact lenses have been used. Opaque spectacles, or blinders, have also been used. ◦ It is theorized that — as with placing red filters over windows, or keeping the birds in red light — the colored lenses prevent the birds from recognizing the blood or raw flesh of other hens, thereby diminishing cannibalistic behaviour.  The hysteria ❖Hysteria is more common in hens of light breeds. ❖This is manifested by: ❖Anxious and aggressive hallucinatory neuro-behavioral hyperactivity (restlessness, strain) ❖clucking ❖fear ❖immobility in alarm position ❖disorderly running ❖crowding ❖asphyxiation mortality ❖decrease in egg percentage ❖alterations of feathers ❖delays of sexual maturity