Technical Report Writing PDF

Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Six Steps for Success Dr. Ihab El-Khodary...

Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Six Steps for Success Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 1 Introduction  Good technical writing takes discipline and strict adherence to a system.  Technical writing is systematically structuring technical ideas on paper.  Keep in mind that it will vary in intricacy, and at times its separate parts will overlap. For a memo, you may only have to list the points that you need to make. On the other hand, the process may become extensive for the manual. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (2) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 1 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success  Remember that this system is geared to help you get the job done.  Make no mistake: writing is hard work. Getting started is hard. Staying with the writing to its completion is hard.  This process will help you with your technical writing in much the same way that a map helps you get to your destination in the most direct and effective manner. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (3) Steps in Summary I. Think and Prepare Before You Write II. Organizing and Developing Your Writing III. The Outline IV. The Rough Draft V. Revision VI. The Final Draft Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (4) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 2 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success I. Think and Prepare Before You Write Exactly what is it that you think about before you write? 1. Establish your writing objective. 2. Identify your readers. 3. Determine the scope of your writing project. 4. Perform the necessary research. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (5) 1. Establish Your Writing Objective  Technical writing objectives fall into three broad categories: – instructive technical procedures, – descriptive technical information, and – general conveyance of technical information for managerial purposes.  These three categories are not always separate and distinct.  An operations manual for a computerized machining center will have a mix of both descriptive and instructive procedures, may or may not include general managerial information. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (6) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 3 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success  Once the general objective is clear, you must develop it into a specific objective.  Don't stop with generalities. Make the objective specific.  Write the objective out and examine it.  By doing this, you can see whether the objective fits the writing task. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (7) To describe the effects of using sodium sulfite in film processing. General To show the effects on high-speed coarse- grained film processing when combining sodium sulfite with the three leading black-and-white film developers (name the three) on the commercial market. More Specific Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (8) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 4 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 2. Identify Your Readers  Don't simply identify whether they are technical, managerial, or general (or a combination of these three).  You must specifically determine their levels of understanding. 1. What do your readers need to know?  How deeply do you need to go into the subject? Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (9)  It is not simply a matter of how much to write but what specifically to write about in terms of your readers' needs. An operational staff studying a user's manual for operating a mainframe computer system needs information on how to operate the computer and what it will do for them. They don't need to know how it is programmed or how to service the system. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (10) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 5 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 2. What do your readers already know?  Is this about an ongoing project in which everyone is involved, or is it a new project about which your readers know little or nothing?  How much background information can you take for granted that they already know? Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (11) 3. Will jargon be understood?  Jargon is exclusive language, understood only by a narrow margin of readers.  This does not necessarily make jargon bad, but it does make it risky if your reader is not in that narrow margin of understanding.  You must know and understand your readers to effectively use jargon.  If you cannot discern this about your reader's understanding, replace the jargon with commonly understood and defined statements. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (12) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 6 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 4. How much definition will be required with the terminology?  Jargon and technical terminology overlap each other.  Jargon can be replaced with common language and definition, but technical terminology must be defined.  You must, however, be careful to define technical terms based on your readers' level of understanding. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (13) 5. Are your primary readers technical?  If technical readers are your audience, are they primarily theorists or are they technicians? – If they are theorists, are you addressing their needs at the theoretical, scientific level? – If they are technicians at the practical level, are you addressing their needs from an applied, practical standpoint? Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (14) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 7 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 6. Are your primary readers managerial?  Managerial readers need a far more general approach that deals with the essence of a project and the managerial circumstances surrounding it.  At what level of managerial authority are your readers? – Are there a number of different levels of line authority involved as well as technical and non-technical levels? – If so, you must write at the level most common to your readers. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (15) 7. Are your readers primarily general- interest readers?  General-interest readers are the most difficult to identify specifically, because they can span so many different levels of technical understanding.  You must write to the level that is your best estimation of the lowest common denominator of technical understanding and expertise. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (16) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 8 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 3. Determine the Scope of the Writing  You must know how deeply to go into your subject before you start writing – known as the scope of the piece of writing.  You must determine this in the early planning stages of the writing.  Your writing objective and mix of readers will determine the depth and detail you must use. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (17) 4. Research  Research is the process of gathering factual information. – In the academic world, research is primarily done at the campus library or the Internet. – In the professional world, it is primarily a matter of calling upon experience and experimentation.  These generally reflect primary research and secondary research. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (18) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 9 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success  Primary research is research you do yourself.  Typical examples of primary research: – Experiments – Mail questionnaires – Personal observation/experience  Primary research is the most common type of research done in professional scientific and industrial settings. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (19)  Secondary research is research someone has done before you.  Typical examples of secondary research: – Book – Periodicals – Newspapers  Secondary research is the most common type of research done at the academic level. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (20) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 10 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success II. Organizing and Developing Your Writing  Understandable writing must be organized and then developed.  Technical writing must have an obvious structure.  When you organize your writing, you work it into a method of development that will best serve your writing objective and your mix of readers. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (21) Ways to develop technical writing 1. General to Specific Development  Takes a general statement, concept, or position and then moves toward the specific elements that support this general position. 2. Specific to General Development  Takes specific statements, concepts, or positions and combines them to form a whole. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (22) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 11 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success General to Specific Development Example Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (23) Specific to General Development Example Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (24) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 12 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 3. Chronological Development  This type of development is only effective if the time sequence is the most important element. 4. Sequential Development  Order of events determines the structure of the writing.  Order of importance or necessity are two likely sequences. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (25) Chronological Development Example Significant Advances in Technology in the Middle Ages 1. A.D. 1000 to 1100: – Stamping and hammer mills – Gunpowder used in warfare – Movable type in printing 2. A D. 1100 to 1200: – Sternpost rudder replaces steering oar – Papermaking – Woodcuts used for initial letters – Manufacture of silk 3. A.D. 1200 to 1300: – Introduction of “cog” cargo vessel – Spectacles – Distilling techniques – Coal mining 4. A.D. 1300 to 1400: – Wind driven tower mills – Sluices, locks, and weirs – Steel crossbow, artillery, plate armor – Skill mills 5. A.D. 1400 to 1500: – Development of military technology – Development of navigational technology – Efficient clocks developed – Gutenberg applies movable type Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (26) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 13 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Sequential Development Example The Process of Making Photographic Enlargements 1. In darkness or “safe” light, a sheet of photographic print paper is removed from a light-safe container and placed under the enlarger (a type of vertical projector). 2. In darkness or “safe” light, the image is enlarged and exposed onto the print paper with the enlarger. 3. In darkness or “safe” light, the exposed print is submerged in developer until the positive image appears. 4. In darkness or “safe” tight, the print is next submerged in stop bath briefly to stop the development action on the emulsion. 5. In darkness or “safe” light, the print is next submerged in fixer solution to chemically make the image permanent and light “safe.” 6. ln complete light, the print is rinsed under running water to remove excess fixer. 7. The print is dried off. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (27) 5. Cause and Effect  Emphasizes a process in which one or more element(s) causes the next. 6. Comparison  Shows how things are alike as well as different from each other. 7. Spatial Development  Relates to the position and space that physical elements occupy. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (28) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 14 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Cause and Effect Development Example The Doppler Effect The Doppler effect was discovered by and named after Christian Doppler in 1842. It states that apparent changes in wave frequency take place relative to the motion of the wave source and observer. [cause] Sound is a familiar and typical wave source subject to the Doppler effect. If you are standing at a railroad crossing and an approaching train sounds its horn at a constant rate as it passes you, the pitch of the horn rises as the train approaches and descends after it passes. The sound of the horn changes from your vantage point but remains constant in pitch from the vantage point of a person in the train. [effect] Light is also a wave source and subject to the Doppler effect. It is through this effect that the movement of distant stars can be approximated. If a star is moving toward the earth, there is a shift in the color spectrum toward blue. If the star is moving away from the earth, there is a shift in the color spectrum toward red. These changes in the color spectrum are the results of the Doppler effect on light waves. [effect] Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (29) Comparison Development Example The Hexagonal Nut Compared to the Wing Nut A wing nut has “wings” o r handles on the sides that can be gripped by hand to tighten or loosen. A hexagonal nut has six flat sides forming a hexagonal shape that can be gripped with pliers o r a wrench. A wing nut goes on screws that are in the open and that can be easily grasped with the hands. Wing nuts need a lot of room for clearance of the wings and the hands turning them. A hexagonal nut can go on screws within the tight confines of machinery or other applications where economy of space is needed. A wing nut can only be tightened to the amount of torque that the human hand can perform. A hexagonal nut can be tightened to a high degree of torque delivered with such tools as pliers, wrenches, or pneumatic tools. Wing nuts are best suited to applications where the nut is frequently loosened and tightened by hand. Hexagonal nuts are best suited to applications that require a high degree of torque and an economy of space. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (30) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 15 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Spatial Development Example Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (31) III. The Outline  An outline has much the same use to the technical writer that a map has to the serious traveler.  You also need a route in order to get where you are going in your writing.  The route you take is your method of development. The actual physical map that you will use is your outline. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (32) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 16 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success  Like a map, your outline will help you in a number of different ways: 1. It forces parallel structure of your ideas. 2. It allows for easy evaluation of your organization and development. 3. It shows you completeness 4. It saves you time. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (33) Outline Formats  When you format technical writing, you are deciding on the actual physical form and appearance that it will have on paper.  There are basically three ways to format an outline: – Simple list – Academic outline – Engineering outline Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (34) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 17 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 1. Simple List  It will suffice for all brief and simple written communications, such as memos and brief letters.  It is an outline that you can write simply and quickly for a routine message. Memorandum 1. Announce meeting at 2:00 P.M. 2. Have section heads bring weekly reports. 3. Mention change in travel policy. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (35) 2. Academic Outline  Called “academic” mainly because it is the kind of outline format most commonly taught in high schools and colleges.  Has the advantage of distinctly separating the various parallel structures in the outline.  For example: I. Main Heading A. First subtopic under main heading B. 2nd subtopic under main heading 1. First subtopic under B 2. Second subtopic under B a. First subtopic under 2 b. Second subtopic under 2 II. Main Heading Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (36) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 18 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 3. Engineering Outline  Called an engineering outline because of its almost exclusive use in the scientific and engineering communities.  Has the advantage of being able to go to any level of complexity of detail without repeating symbols.  For example: 1 Main Heading 1.1 First subtopic under 1 1.2 Second subtopic under 1 1.2.1 First subtopic under 1.2 1.2.2 Second subtopic under 1.2 1.2.2.1 1st subtopic under 1.2.2 1.2.2.2 2nd subtopic under 1.2.2 2 Main Heading Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (37) Three Basic Outline Styles  The divisions are based on how closely you need to approximate your actual prose before writing the draft. These three styles are as follows: – Topical outline – Sentence outline – Paragraph outline Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (38) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 19 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Outline Examples Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (39) Example 1 The College Application Process I. Choose Desired Colleges A. Visit and evaluate college campuses B. Visit and evaluate college websites 1. look for interesting classes 2. note important statistics a. student/faculty ratio b. retention rate II. Prepare Application A. Write Personal Statement 1. Choose interesting topic a. describe an influential person in your life 2. Include important personal details a. volunteer work b. participation in varsity sports B. Revise personal statement III. Compile resume A. List relevant coursework B. List work experience C. List volunteer experience1. tutor at foreign language summer camp 1. tutor at foreign language summer camp 2. counselor for suicide prevention hotline Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (40) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 20 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Example 2 Rasputin 1. The ambiguity of the real Rasputin 1.1. His birth 1.2. Popular historical view 1.2.1. His supporters 1.2.2. His detractors 2. Rasputin’s religious feelings 2.1. His vitality and exuberance 2.2. His simple peasant faith 3. Rasputin’s desire for peace in Russia 3.1. His concern for the Russian underdog 3.1.1. His loyalty to the peasantry 3.1.2. His opposition to anti-Semitism 3.2. His opposition to all wars 4. Rasputin’s gentle, compassionate side 4.1. His kindness to the Romanovs 4.2. His love for family Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (41) Example 3 Banning Jet Skis I. Open With Impact A. This is a jet ski [PowerPoint slide will be shown]. 1. Some people love them and want to use them on all waterways. 2. Other people hate them and want them banned. B. I have a love/hate relationship with them. 1. I enjoyed driving a jet ski on the ocean a few years ago. 2. But my vacation recently at a beautiful lake was marred by the constant noise of jet skis. II. Jet skis destroy peace and quiet. A. People go to national and state parks to get away from noise and enjoy the sounds of nature. B. A jet ski makes loud, intrusive noise. 1. A person on shore 100 feet away hears 80 decibels (equivalent to a police siren). 2. Two or more jet skis traveling together can create over 100 decibels (equivalent to standing next to a chainsaw). 3. These decibel levels were figured by the American Industrial Hygiene Association. III. Jet skis cause serious pollution of air and water. A. One day’s worth of jet ski production of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide equals what a car would produce in 100,000 miles. B. Jet skis have inefficient, two-stroke engines, which dump up to one-third of their fuel unburned. C. Each year 165 million gallons of oil are spilled into U.S. waterways by jet skis. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (42) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 21 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success IV. The Rough Draft  The first draft you write is the rough draft.  This draft comes out of your head with only the help of your outline.  Just get it down.  Speed is essential.  Don’t wait for “inspiration.”  Start putting words on paper no matter how poorly written they may seem to you. Don't stop to correct. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (43)  The rough draft is the major cure for writer's block, because it gets you started writing, no matter what.  Do not show anyone your rough draft. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (44) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 22 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success V. Revision  Revision is not simply a matter of correcting spelling errors and placing commas.  Revision is a matter of converting your raw creative prose into flowing and readable writing.  The system of revision is basically made up of three parts: 1.Activate the writing 2.Clarify the writing 3.Simplify the writing Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (45) 1. Activate the Language  The central element to active written language is your use of verbs.  In technical writing, your verbs must show action and life.  There are two main elements involved in activating language: – Check active voice and passive voice – Activate suppressed verbs Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (46) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 23 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 1. Check active voice and passive voice  As a general rule, you will find that most of your sentences will need to be converted from a passive voice construction to an active voice construction. Stress is exerted by the load pushing down on the platform. [passive] The load exerts stress on the platform by pushing down on it. [active] First, the electrical energy input of the motor must he figured. [passive] First you must figure the electrical energy input of the motor. [active] Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (47) 2. Activate suppressed verbs  Suppressed (weak) verbs are constructions that have held the verb forms back from their most effective expression.  Word endings such as “-tion,” “-ing,” “-ent,” and the use of prepositional phrases with verb forms are your best clues to suppressed verbs.  These usages signal wordiness that is suppressing verbs from “acting” instead of “being.” Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (48) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 24 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Completion of the heat tests has been accomplished by the lab. [completion is suppressed] The lab has completed the heat tests. [activated] The fluorescent lighting is dependent on a dedicated generation system for its operation. [operation is suppressed] A dedicated generation system operates the fluorescent lighting system. [activated] Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (49) 2. Clarify the Writing  If your reader can't understand what you are writing, you've failed.  When your writing is clear, your reader can go directly to your ideas and concepts without struggling with the writing. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (50) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 25 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success  To achieve this clarity, you should check: 1. Decide on personal versus impersonal reference. 2. Use connotation and denotation. 3. Determine whether jargon is helpful. 4. Change abstract words to concrete words. 5. Eliminate affected language. 6. Correct misplaced modifiers. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (51) 1. Decide on personal versus impersonal reference  Technical writing tends to lean toward impersonal reference far more than any other type of writing.  There is almost a fear of ever using the pronouns you, I, or we.  When you switch from the traditional impersonal to the personal use of pronouns, you allow a much easier approach to clear, active writing. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (52) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 26 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success Tensile strength tests were made. [Impersonal passive] We made the necessary tensile strength tests. [Personal active] Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (53) 2. Use connotation and denotation  If you are considering the basic dictionary meaning of a word, you are dealing with its denotative meaning.  If, however, you are primarily considering the feelings and emotions received from the use of a certain word, you are dealing with its connotative meaning.  In technical writing, the more you move toward connotation, the more risk you take that your meaning will not be clear. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (54) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 27 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 3. Determine whether jargon is helpful  Every organization has its own sub- language or jargon.  Only the members of the group understand the actual meaning.  Jargon has an advantage and disadvantage, and both stem from its exclusivity.  Jargon can be a helpful tool in a memo of limited circulation and exclusive readership. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (55) 4. Change abstract words to concrete words  Vague and abstract words obscure meaning in technical writing.  They are words without precise meaning.  Make sure your technical writing is precise and concrete. The supports must be strong enough… [abstract] The supports must have a tensile strength of… [concrete] Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (56) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 28 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 5. Eliminate affected language  Affected language uses complex and impressive vocabulary and sentence constructions that say little.  Affected language is a great enemy of clarity. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (57)  admonish - warn  approximately - about  ascertain - find out  compunction - regret  contiguous - touching  countermand - cancel  edification - benefit  expedite - hurry along  facile - easy  innocuous - harmless  periphery - outer edge  remuneration - pay  subsequently - later  utilize - use Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (58) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 29 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 6. Correct misplaced modifiers  Gerunds, participles, and infinitives are all verbals that are frequently used in phrases to add further information or meaning to sentences. The topic of the seminar was digital conversion of analogue systems at our Chicago branch. The topic of the seminar at our Chicago branch was digital conversion of analogue systems. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (59) 3. Simplify the Writing The following elements are basic to the simplification process in revision: 1. Keep down sentence length. 2. Keep down word length. 3. Eliminate needless words. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (60) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 30 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 1. Keep down sentence length  Long sentences are hard to read.  The longer the sentence, the more you limit your reader's ability to understand.  The length of sentences has to do with average sentence length.  If you have nothing but short, 4-5-word sentences, the writing will be choppy.  On the other hand, 30-50-word sentences will bog your readers down.  A good, readable length in technical writing falls in the range of 12-25 words per sentence. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (61) The total quantity of air (Cubic Feet of air per Minute or CFM) to be moved is governed by various local and state codes and if no local or state codes exist, the total quantity of air (CFM) to be exhausted from the hood shall be determined by one of the formulas that follow. Consider the same sentence after it is broken down into shorter and more easily read sentences: The total CFM (Cubic Feet of air movement per Minute) must usually conform to local or state code. If there is no code, you can figure the CFM by anyone of the following formulas. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (62) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 31 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 2. Keep down word length  Word length refers to the number of syllables rather than the number of letters in the word.  Shorter words are one or two syllables; longer words are four or five syllables.  It is important to remember that you can't dispense with technical terms.  What you can do is control the nontechnical vocabulary.  It is in these words that syllable length will make for either easy or difficult reading. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (63) 3. Eliminate needless words  Get rid of needless words.  In almost all cases, needless words are directly or indirectly redundant for the sake of impressiveness.  Consider the following example and how the elimination of needless words has helped. Shipping considerations will be easy because of the flexible nature of the materials. Shipping will be easy because the materials are flexible. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (64) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 32 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success VI. The Final Draft  The actual physical form of your technical writing influences your readers before they ever read the first word.  There are five basic steps that you must always take to ensure the attractiveness and sense of professionalism your technical writing deserves: – Allow for generous use of white space. – Use topic heads often. – Use listing. – Use illustrations effectively. – Include adequate appendixes. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (65) 1. Allow for Generous Use of White Space  The key to having your reader want to read your writing is adequate white space.  Generous use of white space makes your reader want to read what you have written. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (66) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 33 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 2. Use Topic Heads Often  Topic heads open up the copy and allow for the use of white space.  Also act much like signs do on a highway.  They allow your reader to know what is coming up next.  Topic heads alert your readers to major breaks in the writing and in its concepts. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (67) 3. Use Listing  Listing saves your reader time and makes it far easier to see what the various elements of the list are.  Lists that are set off from the main block of copy are easier for your reader to follow. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (68) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 34 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success 4. Use Illustrations Effectively  The old expression “a picture is worth a thousand words” is true, provided that the illustration says what it is meant to say.  There are ten basic types of illustrations, although each has many variations. – Line drawings – Tables – Pie charts – Bar graphs – Line graphs – Flow charts – Photographs Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (69) 5. Include Adequate Appendixes  Use an appendix at the end of a formal report or book to supplement or clarify.  The information in an appendix is material that is pertinent to the body of writing but is either not critical or too voluminous to be placed in the main body of the text. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (70) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 35 Technical Report Writing Six Steps of Success VII. The Final Presentation  Formal reports should be bound in ring binders or covering folders that not only protect the report but also present an attractive appearance.  Manuals should be bound professionally if they are to go to consumers and have wide circulation.  Shorter and less formal reports should be clean and have a cover sheet on them. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (71)  Never allow your final writing to be dirty or tattered. Always have your technical writing reflect a professional appearance, because it reflect you and your efforts. Dr. Ihab El-Khodary (72) Dr. Ihab El-Khodary 36