English in India PDF

English in India Early History The scope of English in India came with the East India Company Charter issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. As history recounts, the British came to India to trade, not to rule. Hence, they were not aggressive towards the spread of English. They comm...

English in India Early History The scope of English in India came with the East India Company Charter issued by Queen Elizabeth in 1600. As history recounts, the British came to India to trade, not to rule. Hence, they were not aggressive towards the spread of English. They communicated amongst each other in English yet never challenged the authority of Persian as the official language for business. As need for cheap and local human resource rose, so did their desire to create a band of English-speaking Indians. The spread of English in India was rather strategic and self-promoting than humanitarian. Hence, new laws were passed, schools sprang up, missionary propaganda thrived, and English language was made to look as rather an attractive quality to possess. Before 1813, British education policy in colonial India was non- existent. A sharp turn was made with the Charter Act of 1813, which was the first major step towards the promotion of Western-based English education in India Charter of 1813 It introduced Education as a main provision in Company's administrative policy in India. Additionally, the agenda of missionary schools was pushed so as to promote education at grassroot level. (Note: the missionaries were already at play in India with the “mission” to “convert” the native barbarians into good Christian people).  In the year 1844, the same year in which English became the official language of the Indian colony, the government declared that Indians educated in British schools would be eligible for government jobs, which gave a greater impetus to English education in India. 100,000/- were allocated annually for education, promotion of “Literature” and “encouragement of the learned natives of India”. Although the fund was untouched as there was no clarity on how these funds would be allocated to separate functions. A General Committee of Public Instruction was set up in Calcutta in 1813. It mainly comprised of Indian members; hence, focus was laid on education in Persian, Arabic and classical Sanskrit (Oriental). However, the demand of instruction in English also gained impetus under the guidance of Sir Macaulay, who advocated for promotion of Western education in India (Anglican). Numerous English medium educational institutions opened up- The Hindoo College in Calcutta (1817), Presidency College in Madras (1840), and Elphinstone College in Bombay (1856). Hindoo College was opened in Calcutta by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Radhakanta Deb, David Hare, Sir Edward Hyde East, Baidyanath Mukhopdhya and Rasamay Dutt (Presidency University). Here, English was introduced in the curriculum, along with Greek and Latin. Education in India still had an Orientalist approach although many Indians who were well-read in English thought otherwise. In 1824 Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote a letter to the then Viceroy, Amberest, to help promote British literature in India for the liberal development of Indians. Macaulay’s Minutes on Education British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay came to India in 1834 as the legal advisor to the council of Governor General William Bentinck. He was an adamant and passionate supporter of English instructed, Western-oriented education system in India. Some of his suggestions were- replacing Persian with English as the official language of India; choking of funds directed towards Orientalist education and research, English medium education from bottom to top, compulsory English subject at middle- school level, etc. On February 2, 1835, he delivered his 'Minute on Indian Education,' which sought to establish the need for Indian 'natives' to receive education in English- “Indian by blood and colour, but English by likes, beliefs, morality, and intellect.”. It was a watershed moment in India's colonial history, advocating for the promotion of English education and shaping the trajectory of the country's educational landscape. He presented his Minutes to the council in February 1835, which was approved by Lord Bentik, and a resolution was passed in March 1835. Some of the key points are as follows- Downward Filtration Theory: to educate only a few upper-class Indians who would then educate others. Focusing solely on Western Education: to promote European literature and science and ensure complete shutdown of Orientalist educational institutions and curriculum. Stopping Orientalist Research work- No funds from the government were to be spent on the printing of oriental works. Controversy around Minute Macaulay was brought to solve the crisis between the Orientalists and the Anglicans. However, his extremist approach only widened the chasm and fuelled more flames. His solution- to utilize the limited government resources solely on the teaching of Western sciences and literature in English- threatened and infuriated the supporters of Classical education. The Minutes was a hit in many other ways, it opened a gateway to the vast sea of Western knowledge to the Indians, who later used it to facilitate Independence; it created the foundation of Modern education system in India; offered a much-needed structural reform to education in India. However, Macaulay’s fundamentalism and Bentick’s approval of it was called out. Protests were floored and discontent was sufficiently expressed. Bentick couldn’t pacify the angry Orientalist. In a very prominent instance, students at the Calcutta Madrassa raised a petition against its shutdown; this protest got substantial support and the Madrassa and its Hindu equivalents were retained. In England, a despatch was to be prepared by James Mill, giving the official response of the company's Court of Directors. Due to his poor health, the task was inherited by his son, John Stuart Mill, who drafted a despatch in 1836. The draft was sharply critical of Macaulay's infamous Minute. While drafting the despatch Mill drew upon the ideas of H. H. Wilson, a noted Orientalist and sharp critic of Macaulay and the Anglicists. Although the draft never made it to India due to objections from the President of the Board of Trade, John Hobhouse, a Whig with suitable connections. Lord Auckland’s policy for pacification Ultimately, Bentick’s tenure got over and he was succeeded by Lord Auckland in 1839. In 1840, he started working on a resolution that thrived on mid- way policy- The combined grant on education would first make provisions for Oriental education institutions. Once satisfied, the remaining funds would be utilized to make provisions for English education. 1/4th of students in Oriental institutions would be offered scholarships. Funds were set aside to promote research and publications in Oriental medium. Also, translation activity was promoted for seminal works of Western literature into vernacular languages. New institutions for promotion of Western education would be established without posing any threat to the already existing classical institutions of India. Wood’s Dispatch (1854) A watershed moment in the history of modernization of Education in India was brought about by Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of East India Company. His policy is considered as the Magna Carta of English education in India. In 1854, his dispatch was received by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India. It suggested more structure to Indian schooling system and its medium of education,  emphasized upon teacher training and promoted women’s education. Some key points from the Despatch are as follows- Education was systemised in order and hierarchy- o School education was to be divided in Elementary, Middle and High school education with the provision of scholarships. o Anglo-Vernacular medium in High Schools o Affiliated colleges at district level o Affiliating universities in the presidency towns Emphasis on Primary Education reformation- Education Department to be set up in every province which would ensure at least 1 government school in each district. Primary education was to be conferred in vernacular language for the ease of young minds. Higher Education- Central universities to be formed in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, modeled on London University. A senate of universities- chancellor, vice- chancellor and fellows- would be constituted by the government. English was made the medium of instruction for higher studies Women’s Education Teachers’ training Promotion of Secular Education Grants-in-aid- to encourage private enterprise in education. As a result, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta universities were set up in 1857; Agriculture Institute at Pusa (Bihar) and Engineering Institute at Roorkee were established; Bethune School (founded by John Eliot Drinkwater Bethune in 1849 as a school and 1879 as a college) was established for women’s education in Kolkata. Hunter Commission (1882) It was commissioned by Lord Ripon on 3rd February 1882, presided by Sir William Hunter, IAS, to lay focus on the status of Primary education system in India and to assess the progress of the recommendations of Wood’s Despatch. Hence, it was called the Indian Education Commission. Some highlights of the report are as follows- It recommended that primary education be managed by the local government and municipal boards under the Local Self Government Act. Separate funds were allocated for rural areas and urban areas. Vernacular language was to be the medium of education till middle school, with some basic knowledge of English. From middle school, English can take over as the medium of education. Private Partners were to look after secondary education; they were to be supported by government’s grants-in-aid. Higher education saw no great revolutionary recommendations. The only addition was that education was to be divided between literary or academic education and vocational education. Missionary schools were discouraged and participation of Indians was encouraged at school level. Lord Curzon Indian University Commission (1902) was appointed by Lord Curzon to facilitate greater good of university education in India. The decision was made in a conference on education (1901) in Shimla. The education policy was published as a government resolution on 11 March 1904. Key aspects of the policy are as follows- Primary education should be the focus of the state. English subject was to be introduced in the Middle school; Medium of school should be mother-tongue till the learner attains 13 years in age. Secondary education was highly stressed upon with quality learning. Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904 which provided additional grants for higher education. A sum of 13.5 Lakhs were sanctioned as additional grant for arts and liberal education colleges. Sadler Commission (1917) Sadler was invited by Secretary of State, Austen Chamberlain to study “conditions and prospects” of University of Calcutta, however its true scope was nationwide. The commission was instituted with the view of lifting some weight off the universities in India. The commission known as the Sadler Commission after the name of its chairman Dr. Michael E. Sadler, the Vice Chancellor of the university of Leeds. Other members of the Commission were Dr. Gregory, Prof. Ramsay Muir, Sir Hartog, Dr. Horniel, Dr. Zia Uddin Ahmed and Sir Asutosh Mukerji.  It ended up preparing a report of 13 volumes. Some key aspects of the report are as follows- There was a need to increase number of universities in India with a more systemized and structural curriculum framework. Secondary education should see improvements so as to provide better assistance to higher education system. In this regard, Intermediate colleges were suggested. Students had to pass the intermediate so as to reach universities. Key aspects of Wood’s Despatch were still missing e.g. promotion of women’s education, focus on teacher training, etc. The Board of Women Education was established at Calcutta University to encourage women’s education. Universities must be given greater freedom in order to encourage evolution. Hence, each university must have a Vice-Chancellor. Suggestions of the commission were seriously looked into by the government. As a result, many new colleges and universities were established in Patna, Mysore, Benares, Lucknow, Daca, Aligarh, etc. Wardha Scheme of Education Wardha was initiated on Gandhi’s understanding of the lags of Indian education system. He took up the issue in 1931’s Round Table Conference and in his weekly magazine “Harijan”. All India National Education Conference was held in 1937 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi where he made certain suggestions. As a result, a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain was formed.  The Committee submitted the first National Basic Education Scheme in its report in March 1938, which is known as the Wardha Scheme of Basic Education. This scheme was popularly nown as “Nai Talim/Basic Education/Buniyadi Talim (Shiksha)/ Buniyadi Shiksha” or “Basic Education”, as it integrated Physical Environment, Social Environment, and Craft Work. Following are the key features of the Scheme- Suggested compulsory and free education for 8 years between age of 6-14 years in mother tongue. The First 5 years were for Junior Stage and the next 3 years for the Senior Stage. Girls could exit at age 12. Samavaaya (Samanvay) integration method- It was a work-centric education. The idea was to inculcate collective activity, self-reliance, dignity of labour, and emotional development in young minds. Students could sell their crafts work in return of money so as to create a self-fuelled system of education at grassroot level. Secondary Education Commission In 1951, Central Advisory Board of Education advised the central government to appoint secondary education commission. The government appointed secondary education commission on 23rd sept, 1952, under the chairmanship of Dr. Lakshamanswami Mudaliar, the then Vice Chancellor of Madras University. Hence, it is also called the Mudaliar Commission. Its objectives were to assess the state and framework of secondary education in India. It was to look into the current  model of examination, curriculum, pay scale, physical conditions, etc. The commission prepared its report & presented it to government on 29 Aug, 1953. The report was 244 pages long divided into 14 chapters- Duration of secondary education should be 7 years- junior secondary stage (3 years) & Higher secondary stage (4 years). Intermediate classes should be abolished and class 11th should be added to secondary education & class 12th to degree courses. Provision of special schools for differently-abled students. Proposed three-language formula- 1. Mother tongue should be medium of education till primary education. 2. English and Hindi be introduced at the end of the middle school. 3. At higher level one vernacular language and one other language be taught. Laid stress on English in India at secondary level. Led to Language Act of Indian Parliament in 1963- Hindi shall be the official language; English shall be the associate official language, regional languages be officialized in state administration. This led to Kothari commission's recommendations. Kothari Commission Kothari Commission was formed on 14 July 1964 under the Chairmanship Daulat Singh Kothari, the then chairman of UGC. It incorporated experts from other nations. There was a total of 20  members. The Report was submitted by the Kothari Commission on 29th June 1966 to M.C.Chagla, the then minister of education. Some important recommendations are as follows- Recommended providing free and compulsory education for children between 6 to 14 years of age. Recommended adopting a three-language formula at state levels with the view of promoting a language of the Southern States in Hindi speaking states and promoting Hindi, English and a regional language in non-Hindi speaking states. Recommended flexibility and freedom of research work for teachers and the freedom to publish those findings. Education of the marginalized was stressed upon- girls, tribals, differently abled, and those who faced caste-based oppression. Learning in Science and Maths was highly encouraged.